Figure 1
Flow chart of enrolled study participants.
Table 1
Baseline clinical characteristics of study participants according to dietary sodium intake.
| CHARACTERISTICS | QUARTILE 1 | QUARTILE 2 | QUARTILE 3 | QUARTILE 4 | P VALUE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| number | 22,335 | 22,335 | 22,334 | 22,333 | |
| Men (n, [%]) | 16,271 (72.8%) | 16,918 (75.7%) | 17,718 (79.3%) | 18,179 (81.4%) | <0.001 |
| Age (year) | 40.5 ± 8.2 | 40.2 ± 7.9 | 40.3 ± 8.0 | 40.7 ± 8.0 | <0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 24.1 ± 3.3 | 24.3 ± 3.3 | 24.6 ± 3.3 | 24.9 ± 3.4 | <0.001 |
| LDL-cholesterol (mg/dl) | 128.7 ± 32.6 | 129.2 ± 32.4 | 129.5 ± 32.4 | 129.4 ± 32.3 | 0.043 |
| Average alcohol use (g/day) | 12.4 ± 18.5 | 14.4 ± 20.3 | 16.3 ± 22.5 | 19.7 ± 27.5 | <0.001 |
| Current smoker (%) | 17.3% | 20.6% | 23.4% | 26.9% | <0.001 |
| High physical activity (%) | 15.1% | 16.2% | 17.2% | 19.1% | <0.001 |
| High education (%) | 69.8% | 71.5% | 72.3% | 70.1% | <0.001 |
| Hypertension (%) | 14.5% | 14.7% | 16.2% | 17.0% | <0.001 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 111.7 ± 12.4 | 112.2 ± 12.4 | 112.8 ± 12.3 | 113.6 ± 12.4 | <0.001 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 72.3 ± 9.8 | 72.5 ± 9.8 | 72.9 ± 9.7 | 73.5 ± 9.8 | <0.001 |
| Anti-hypertensive medication (%) | 6.3% | 6.3% | 7.2% | 7.4% | <0.001 |
| DM (%) | 4.9% | 5.3% | 5.4% | 6.0% | <0.001 |
| Total calorie intake (kcal/day) | 1074.6 ± 355.3 | 1336.5 ± 407.5 | 1581.6 ± 470.0 | 1955.8 ± 631.4 | <0.001 |
| Dietary sodium intake (mg/day) | 640.8 ± 227.1 | 1214.7 ± 152.8 | 1844.2 ± 224.3 | 3271.8 ± 974.4 | <0.001 |
| Lipid lowering medication (%) | 3.8% | 4.2% | 4.2% | 4.5% | 0.006 |
| CAC score | 8.9 ± 74.7 | 9.2 ± 75.6 | 8.9 ± 65.7 | 9.4 ± 67.2 | 0.888 |
| CAC score >0 (n, [%]) | 2,539 (11.4%) | 2,630 (11.8%) | 2,760 (12.4%) | 2,955 (13.2%) | <0.001 |
[i] Continuous variables are expressed as mean (±SD), and categorical variables are expressed as number (percentage (%)).
BMI: body mass index, DM: diabetes mellitus, LDL: low-density lipoprotein, CAC: Coronary Calcium Score.
Table 2
Odds Ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for CAC score >0 according to the quartile groups of dietary sodium intake.
| QUARTILE 1 | QUARTILE 2 | QUARTILE 3 | QUARTILE 4 | P FOR TREND | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All participants (n) | 22,335 | 22,335 | 22,334 | 22,333 | |
| Unadjusted OR | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.04 (0.98–1.10) | 1.10 (1.04–1.16) | 1.19 (1.12–1.26) | <0.001 |
| Model 1 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.08 (1.02–1.14) | 1.18 (1.11–1.25) | 1.34 (1.25–1.43) | <0.001 |
| Model 2 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.09 (1.02–1.16) | 1.11 (1.04–1.19) | 1.14 (1.06–1.23) | 0.002 |
| Model 3 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.06 (1.00–1.14) | 1.09 (1.01–1.16) | 1.11 (1.03–1.20) | 0.010 |
| Case [n, (%)] | 2,539 (11.4%) | 2,630 (11.8%) | 2,760 (12.4%) | 2,955 (13.2%) | |
| Sodium intake (median) (mg/day) | ≤ 956 (681) | 956–1488 (1211) | 1488–2275 (1828) | ≥ 2275 (2989) | |
| Men (n) | 17,277 | 17,269 | 17,269 | 17,271 | |
| Unadjusted OR | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.01 (0.95–1.07) | 1.03 (0.97–1.09) | 1.07 (1.00–1.13) | 0.028 |
| Model 1 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.09 (1.02–1.16) | 1.18 (1.11–1.26) | 1.35 (1.26–1.45) | <0.001 |
| Model 2 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.08 (1.01–1.15) | 1.10 (1.03–1.18) | 1.13 (1.04–1.22) | 0.005 |
| Model 3 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.07 (1.00–1.14) | 1.08 (1.01–1.16) | 1.10 (1.02–1.19) | 0.034 |
| Case [n, (%)] | 2,409 (13.9%) | 2,431 (14.1%) | 2,463 (14.3%) | 2,542 (14.7%) | |
| Range of intake (median) (mg/day) | ≤ 988 (703) | 988–1534 (1251) | 1534–2327 (1879) | ≥ 2327 (3048) | |
| Women (n) | 8,019 | 7,987 | 8,007 | 7,994 | |
| Unadjusted OR | 1.00 (Reference) | 0.99 (0.82–1.20) | 1.19 (0.99–1.43) | 1.41 (1.19–1.68) | <0.001 |
| Model 1 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.02 (0.84–1.23) | 1.25 (1.03–1.51) | 1.55 (1.26–1.90) | <0.001 |
| Model 2 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.05 (0.85–1.30) | 1.12 (0.91–1.38) | 1.13 (0.90–1.41) | 0.313 |
| Model 3 | 1.00 (Reference) | 0.98 (0.78–1.21) | 1.08 (0.87–1.34) | 1.11 (0.88–1.39) | 0.284 |
| Case [n, (%)] | 228 (4.5%) | 226 (4.5%) | 269 (5.3%) | 316 (6.2%) | |
| Range of intake (median) (mg/day) | ≤ 867 (617) | 867–1334 (1090) | 1334–2064 (1637) | ≥ 2064 (2779) |
[i] Model 1: total calorie intake.
Model 2: total calorie intake, age, sex, alcohol intake, smoking, education, physical activity.
Model 3: total calorie intake, age, sex, alcohol intake, smoking, education, physical activity, systolic blood pressure, anti-hypertensive medication, DM, BMI, LDL cholesterol, lipid lowering medication.
(sex excluded in gender subgroup analysis).
Table 3
The relationships between sodium intake and CAC score.
| UNADJUSTED | MODEL 1 | MODEL 2 | MODEL 3 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β(SE) | P VALUE | β(SE) | P VALUE | β(SE) | P VALUE | β(SE) | P VALUE | |
| All participants | –0.002 (0.002), | 0.193 | 0.001 (0.002), | 0.738 | –0.002 (0.002), | 0.319 | –0.002 (0.002), | 0.177 |
| Men | –0.002 (0.002), | 0.334 | 0.001 (0.002), | 0.470 | –0.001 (0.002), | 0.539 | –0.002 (0.002), | 0.334 |
| Women | –0.006 (0.004), | 0.198 | –0.007 (0.005), | 0.214 | –0.008 (0.005), | 0.132 | –0.008 (0.005), | 0.107 |
[i] Values in table are non-standardized correlation coefficients (β) and p values of sodium intake (mg/day). SE: Standard error.
Model 1: total calorie intake.
Model 2: total calorie intake, age, sex, alcohol intake, smoking, education, physical activity.
Model 3: total calorie intake, age, sex, alcohol intake, smoking, education, physical activity, systolic blood pressure, anti-hypertensive medication, DM, BMI, LDL cholesterol, lipid lowering medication.
(sex excluded in gender subgroup analysis).