Table 1
Prevalence of study characteristics compared by cooking fuel type. SD = standard deviation; CVD = cardiovascular disease; HS = high school.
| OVERALL | CLEAN FUELS | POLLUTING FUELS | |
|---|---|---|---|
| N = 2931 (100%) | N = 347 (11.8%) | N = 2584 (88.2%) | |
| Demographics | |||
| Age in years, Mean (SD) | 42.03 (15.85) | 40.40 (15.07) | 42.25 (15.94) |
| Age group, years | |||
| 18–29 | 852 (29.1%) | 106 (30.5%) | 746 (28.9%) |
| 30–39 | 552 (18.8%) | 85 (24.5%) | 467 (18.1%) |
| 40–49 | 525 (17.9%) | 56 (16.1%) | 469 (18.2%) |
| 50–59 | 496 (16.9%) | 50 (14.4%) | 446 (17.3%) |
| 60+ | 506 (17.3%) | 50 (14.4%) | 456 (17.6%) |
| Sex | |||
| Male | 1226 (41.8%) | 127 (36.6%) | 1099 (42.5%) |
| Female | 1705 (58.2%) | 220 (63.4%) | 1485 (57.5%) |
| Education | |||
| <HS | 1059 (36.2%) | 79 (22.8%) | 980 (38.0%) |
| ≥HS | 1865 (63.8%) | 268 (77.2%) | 1597 (62.0%) |
| Missing | 7 | 0 | 7 |
| Income | |||
| ≤ $1 USD/day | 2052 (70.2%) | 234 (67.4%) | 1818 (70.5%) |
| $1–10 USD/day | 354 (12.1%) | 38 (11.0%) | 316 (12.3%) |
| >$10 USD/day | 518 (17.7%) | 75 (21.6%) | 443 (17.2%) |
| (Missing) | 7 | 0 | 7 |
| Household size | |||
| 1–3 | 1639 (55.9%) | 160 (46.1%) | 1479 (57.2%) |
| 4+ | 1292 (44.1%) | 187 (53.9%) | 1105 (42.8%) |
| Food insecurity | |||
| No/Low FIS | 53 (1.8%) | 22 (6.5%) | 31 (1.2%) |
| Moderate FIS | 448 (15.6%) | 98 (29.2%) | 350 (13.8%) |
| High FIS | 2371 (82.6%) | 216 (64.3%) | 2155 (85.0%) |
| Missing | 59 | 11 | 48 |
| Season | |||
| Dry | 1,351 (46.1%) | 168 (48.4%) | 1,183 (45.8%) |
| Rainy | 1,580 (53.9%) | 179 (51.6%) | 1,401 (54.2%) |
| Cooking related | |||
| Cooking location | |||
| Inside home | 509 (17.4%) | 79 (22.8%) | 430 (16.6%) |
| Outside | 967 (33.0%) | 38 (11.0%) | 929 (36.0%) |
| In a separate building | 1451 (49.5%) | 230 (66.3%) | 1221 (47.3%) |
| Missing | 4 (0.1%) | 0 (0.0%) | 4 (0.2%) |
| Cook status | |||
| Not primary cook | 1818 (62.2%) | 208 (59.9%) | 1610 (62.5%) |
| Primary Cook | 1106 (37.8%) | 139 (40.1%) | 967 (37.5%) |
| Missing | 7 | 0 | 7 |
| Health behaviors | |||
| Current smoking | |||
| Current/Former | 216 (7.4%) | 19 (5.5%) | 197 (7.7%) |
| Never | 2,696 (92.6%) | 325 (94.5%) | 2371 (92.3%) |
| (Missing) | 19 | 3 | 16 |
| Alcohol use | |||
| <1 drink/day | 2,807 (96.3%) | 333 (96.2%) | 2474 (96.3%) |
| ≥1 drink/day | 109 (3.7%) | 13 (3.8%) | 96 (3.7%) |
| Missing | 15 | 1 | 14 |
| Physical activity | |||
| Moderate–high | 1,442 (49.4%) | 159 (45.8%) | 1283 (49.9%) |
| Low | 1489 (50.6%) | 188 (54.2%) | 1289 (50.1%) |
| Missing | 12 | 0 | 12 |
| CVD Risk factors | |||
| Body mass index categories | |||
| Underweight/Normal weight | 1,641 (56.5%) | 143 (41.6%) | 1498 (58.5%) |
| Overweight | 765 (26.3%) | 112 (32.6%) | 653 (25.5%) |
| Obese | 500 (17.2%) | 89 (25.9%) | 411 (16.0%) |
| Missing | 25 | 3 | 22 |
| Diabetes | |||
| Yes | 154 (5.4%) | 19 (5.5%) | 135 (5.3%) |
| No | 2,691 (94.59%) | 317 (91.4%) | 2,374 (91.9%) |
| Missing | 86 (2.9%) | 11 (3.2%) | 75 (2.9%) |
| Dyslipidemia | |||
| Yes | 364 (12.4%) | 37 (10.7%) | 327 (12.7%) |
| No | 2560 (87.6%) | 309 (89.3%) | 2251 (87.3%) |
| Missing | 7 (0.2%) | 1 (0.3%) | 6 (0.2%) |
| Kidney Disease | |||
| Yes | 248 (8.7%) | 26 (7.7%) | 222 (8.8%) |
| No | 2662 (91.3%) | 318 (92.3%) | 2344 (91.2%) |
| Missing | 21 (0.7%) | 3 (0.9%) | 18 (0.7%) |
| BP Treatment | |||
| Yes | 348 (12.0%) | 47 (13.7%) | 301 (11.7%) |
| No | 2562 (88.0%) | 297 (86.3%) | 2265 (88.3%) |
| Missing | 21 (0.7%) | 3 (0.9%) | 18 (0.7%) |
Figure 1
Type of cooking fuel. Dark gray and light blue bars represent polluting and clean fuel, respectively.
Table 2
Prevalence of blood pressure outcomes compared by cooking fuel type and sex. BP = blood pressure, HTN = hypertension, SBP = systolic blood pressure, DBP = diastolic blood pressure, SD = standard deviation.
| TOTAL | MALE | FEMALE | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OVERALL | CLEAN FUELS | POLLUTING FUELS | CLEAN FUELS | POLLUTING FUELS | CLEAN FUELS | POLLUTING FUELS | |
| N = 2931 | N = 347 | N = 2584 | N = 127 | N = 1099 | N = 220 | N = 1485 | |
| Blood pressure categories | |||||||
| Normal | 1,426 (49.0%) | 170 (49.4%) | 1,256 (48.9%) | 50 (39.4%) | 532 (48.7%) | 120 (55.3%) | 724 (49.1%) |
| PreHTN | 631 (21.7%) | 80 (23.3%) | 551 (21.5%) | 44 (34.6%) | 269 (24.6%) | 36 (16.6%) | 282 (19.1%) |
| HTN | 854 (29.4%) | 94 (27.4%) | 760 (29.6%) | 33 (26.2%) | 292 (26.7%) | 61 (28.1%) | 468 (31.8%) |
| SBP (mmHg), Mean (SD) | 124.41 (23.89) | 123.09 (22.17) | 124.59 (24.11) | 127.87 (20.90) | 125.64 (22.90) | 120.31 (22.45) | 123.81 (24.94) |
| DBP (mmHg), Mean (SD) | 74.11 (15.51) | 73.73 (14.85) | 74.17 (15.60) | 72.83 (15.77) | 72.54 (15.85) | 74.24 (14.31) | 75.37 (15.31) |
Table 3
Results of the unadjusted and adjusted associations of cooking fuel type and cooking location on blood pressure outcomes. PR = prevalence ratio, CI = confidence interval, SBP = systolic blood pressure, DBP = diastolic blood pressure.
| EFFECT | HYPERTENSION | SBP | DBP |
|---|---|---|---|
| PRa (95% CI) | BETAb (95% CI) | BETAb (95% CI) | |
| Polluting vs clean fuelsc | |||
| Unadjusted | 1.08 (0.90, 1.30) | 1.58 (–0.87, 4.03) | 0.47 (–1.16, 2.10) |
| Adjustedc | 0.94 (0.80, 1.10) | –1.16 (–3.18, 0.85) | –0.59 (–2.07, 0.89) |
| Among malesd | 0.86 (0.66, 1.12) | –4.80 (–8.24, –1.37) | –1.36 (–3.96, 1.23) |
| Among femalesd | 0.99 (0.81, 1.20) | 0.99 (–1.46, 3.44) | –0.13 (–1.93, 1.67) |
| Indoor vs outdoor cooking | |||
| Unadjusted | 1.13 (1.00, 1.28) | 1.41 (–0.43, 3.24) | 0.59 (–0.63, 1.80) |
| Adjustede | 1.12 (1.00, 1.25) | 1.67 (0.15, 3.20) | 0.36 (–0.73, 1.45) |
[i] a. Prevalence ratio from pooled results of generalized estimating equation Poisson regression models from 10 imputed datasets.
b. Beta coefficient from pooled results of general estimating equation linear regression models from 10 imputed datasets.
c. Models adjusted for age, sex, poverty, education, food insecurity, household size, and season.
d. Models adjusted for age, sex, poverty, education, food insecurity, household size, season, and included an interaction between sex and cooking fuel type.
e. Models adjusted for age, sex, poverty, education, food insecurity, household size, cooking fuel type and season.