Table 1
Characteristics according to energy-adjusted intakes of total and specific types of fats.
| TOTAL FAT | SATURATED FAT | MONOUNSATURATED FAT | POLYUNSATURATED FAT | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TERTILE 1 | TERTILE 2 | TERTILE 3 | TERTILE 1 | TERTILE 2 | TERTILE 3 | TERTILE 1 | TERTILE 2 | TERTILE 3 | TERTILE 1 | TERTILE 2 | TERTILE 3 | |
| N | 135 | 136 | 135 | 135 | 136 | 135 | 135 | 136 | 135 | 135 | 136 | 135 |
| Mean (SD)a | ||||||||||||
| Age (years) | 36.42 (7.83) | 35.65 (7.42) | 33.44 (8.12) | 36.14 (7.83) | 35.71 (7.94) | 33.66 (7.69) | 35.65 (8.09) | 36.21 (7.63) | 33.64 (7.73) | 35.27 (7.74) | 35.85 (7.67) | 34.39 (8.20) |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.88 (4.06) | 23.91 (3.95) | 23.09 (3.41) | 24.07 (3.79) | 23.36 (3.74) | 23.45 (3.94) | 23.75 (3.61) | 23.65 (4.29) | 23.48 (3.57) | 23.64 (3.94) | 23.96 (4.04) | 23.27 (3.47) |
| Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 1786.99 (666.20) | 1788.96 (631.23) | 1688.62 (667.21) | 1783.75 (635.35) | 1885.78 (681.78) | 1639.33 (627.69) | 1918.39 (731.33) | 1840.23 (591.71) | 1505.57 (559.04) | 1862.32 (748.15) | 1855.21 (598.72) | 1546.55 (557.32) |
| Carbohydrate (% of total energy) | 67.53 (8.96) | 57.64 (5.80) | 45.51 (8.15) | 60.92 (13.09) | 58.86 (8.94) | 50.89 (10.82) | 60.58 (13.28) | 58.80 (9.40) | 51.30 (10.55) | 58.90 (13.78) | 58.96 (10.08) | 52.82 (10.40) |
| Protein (% of total energy) | 15.15 (5.04) | 16.13 (4.09) | 16.94 (4.38) | 16.28 (5.20) | 15.71 (4.04) | 16.23 (4.40) | 16.29 (5.68) | 15.81 (3.74) | 16.13 (4.08) | 16.18 (5.44) | 15.95 (4.25) | 16.10 (3.91) |
| Total fat (% of total energy) | 16.99 (4.62) | 26.02 (2.81) | 37.37 (6.19) | 22.22 (9.47) | 25.58 (7.18) | 32.58 (8.93) | 22.65 (9.46) | 25.33 (7.40) | 32.40 (9.06) | 24.08 (10.24) | 25.21 (7.99) | 31.09 (8.96) |
| SFA (% of total energy) | 3.22 (2.20) | 4.95 (3.13) | 8.41 (5.37) | 1.57 (0.88) | 4.58 (1.04) | 10.43 (3.85) | 2.42 (2.36) | 4.75 (2.22) | 9.41 (4.64) | 3.24 (2.84) | 5.63 (4.10) | 7.71 (4.75) |
| MUFA (% of total energy) | 3.30 (2.41) | 5.44 (3.47) | 9.22 (6.18) | 2.25 (1.81) | 5.22 (2.73) | 10.49 (5.33) | 1.65 (1.37) | 5.09 (1.77) | 11.23 (4.67) | 2.44 (2.43) | 6.15 (4.09) | 9.37 (5.23) |
| PUFA (% of total energy) | 2.61 (2.00) | 3.76 (2.50) | 5.63 (94.59) | 2.28 (1.96) | 3.89 (3.00) | 5.83 (4.08) | 1.68 (1.58) | 3.84 (2.51) | 6.47 (3.95) | 1.03 (0.70) | 3.33 (1.01) | 7.65 (3.42) |
| N (%)b | ||||||||||||
| Length of Stay in Korea | ||||||||||||
| < 5years | 24 (17.91) | 31 (24.03) | 50 (38.46) | 33 (25.19) | 30 (22.90) | 42 (32.06) | 32 (24.43) | 32 (24.43) | 41 (31.30) | 33 (25.19) | 30 (22.22) | 42 (33.07) |
| ≥ 5years | 110 (82.09) | 98 (75.97) | 80 (61.54) | 98 (74.81) | 101 (77.10) | 89 (67.94) | 99 (75.57) | 99 (75.57) | 90 (68.70) | 98 (74.81) | 105 (77.78) | 85 (66.93) |
| Insulin resistancec | ||||||||||||
| No | 108 (80.00) | 97 (71.32) | 100 (74.07) | 106 (78.52) | 106 (77.94) | 93 (68.89) | 106 (78.52) | 107 (78.68) | 92 (68.15) | 105 (77.78) | 106 (77.94) | 94 (69.63) |
| Yes | 27 (20.00) | 39 (28.68) | 35 (25.93) | 29 (21.48) | 30 (22.06) | 42 (31.11) | 29 (21.48) | 29 (21.32) | 43 (31.85) | 30 (22.22) | 30 (22.06) | 41 (30.37) |
| Employment status | ||||||||||||
| Employed | 59 (43.7) | 61 (45.19) | 59 (44.03) | 55 (40.74) | 67 (50.00) | 57 (42.22) | 58 (43.28) | 58 (42.96) | 63 (46.67) | 53 (39.85) | 69 (50.74) | 57 (42.22) |
| Unemployed | 76 (56.3) | 74 (54.81) | 75 (55.97) | 80 (59.26) | 67 (50.00) | 78 (57.78) | 76 (56.72) | 77 (57.04) | 72 (53.33) | 80 (60.15) | 67 (49.26) | 78 (57.78) |
[i] Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; SFA, saturated fat; MUFA, monounsaturated fat; PUFA, polyunsaturated fat.
There were missing data for a few participants; BMI (n = 2), length of stay in Korea (n = 13), and occupation (n = 2).
a Mean (SD) for continuous variables b n (%) for categorical variables. c Insulin resistance was defined as HOMA-IR above 2.5.
Table 2
Odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s for dyslipidemia according to dietary saturated fat (SFA) replacing carbohydrate intake.
| TERTILES OF ENERGY-ADJUSTED DIETARY SFA INTAKE | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TERTILE 1 | TERTILE 2 | TERTILE 3 | P FOR TREND | PER 10 G OF SFA INTAKEe | |
| Median intakea, g/day | 3.37 | 8.96 | 18.39 | ||
| Dyslipidemia | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 38/135 | 49/136 | 43/135 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 1.94 (1.05–3.57) | 2.36 (1.11–5.05) | 0.04 | 1.50 (1.02–2.21) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 2.28 (1.19–4.35) | 2.88 (1.29–6.39) | 0.02 | 1.68 (1.11–2.55) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 2.28 (1.18–4.41) | 2.65 (1.18–5.93) | 0.03 | 1.64 (1.07–2.52) |
| TC ≥ 200 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 25/127 | 38/127 | 37/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 2.30 (1.16–4.55) | 2.96 (1.29–6.79) | 0.02 | 1.47 (0.98–2.22) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 2.76 (1.34–5.66) | 3.62 (1.53–8.55) | 0.01 | 1.58 (1.03–2.43) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 2.69 (1.31–5.53) | 3.34 (1.41–7.90) | 0.02 | 1.58 (1.03–2.43) |
| TG ≥ 150 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 11/127 | 16/127 | 9/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted model | 1.00 | 1.80 (0.70–4.64) | 1.16 (0.33–4.08) | 0.99 | 0.78 (0.39–1.54) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 2.07 (0.77–5.61) | 1.46 (0.42–5.10) | 0.72 | 0.87 (0.43–1.76) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 1.71 (0.59–4.95) | 1.08 (0.28–4.20) | 0.96 | 0.93 (0.45–1.90) |
| LDL-C ≥ 130 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 17/127 | 26/127 | 26/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 2.21 (1.01–4.80) | 2.93 (1.14–7.51) | 0.04 | 1.43 (0.91–2.26) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 3.02 (1.32–6.91) | 4.00 (1.48–10.79) | 0.02 | 1.55 (0.94–2.53) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 2.99 (1.29–6.90) | 3.71 (1.37–10.05) | 0.02 | 1.58 (0.97–2.58) |
| HDL-C < 50 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 39/127 | 34/127 | 33/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.76 (0.40–1.43) | 0.61 (0.28–1.34) | 0.24 | 0.86 (0.57–1.28) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.47–1.83) | 0.69 (0.30–1.59) | 0.36 | 0.93 (0.60–1.43) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.82 (0.41–1.65) | 0.57 (0.24–1.34) | 0.19 | 0.90 (0.58–1.39) |
[i] Abbreviations: SFA, saturated fat; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride; LDL-C, LDL cholesterol; HDL-C, HDL cholesterol.
Dyslipidemia was defined as total cholesterol ≥200 mg/dL or triglyceride ≥150 mg/dL or LDL cholesterol ≥130 mg/dL.
Estimates are presented as odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s.
a Median (g/day) of energy-adjusted SFA intakes were calculated.
b Model was adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), energy-adjusted protein (tertile), and energy-adjusted other types of fats (tertile).
c Model was adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), BMI (<18.5, 18.5– <23, 23- <25, ≥25 kg/m2), length of stay in Korea (<5 years, ≥5 years), employment status (employed, unemployed), region (Seoul, Incheon/Gyeonggido, Daejeon/Chuncheongnamdo), vigorous activity (no, yes), educational level (elementary or high school, association or vocational or college or above), energy-adjusted protein (tertile), and energy-adjusted other types of fats (tertile).
d Model was additionally adjusted for insulin resistance (no: HOMA-IR < 2.5, yes: HOMA-IR ≥ 2.5).
e For 10 g/day increment of SFA. Energy-adjusted protein and other types of fats were included in the model as continuous variables (g/day).
f The results remained similar when waist to hip circumference was adjusted instead of BMI in the multivariate model 1c (Supplementary Table 6).
Table 3
Odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s for dyslipidemia according to dietary monounsaturated fat (MUFA) replacing carbohydrate intake.
| TERTILES OF ENERGY-ADJUSTED DIETARY MUFA INTAKE | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TERTILE 1 | TERTILE 2 | TERTILE 3 | P FOR TREND | PER 10 G OF MUFA INTAKEe | |
| Median intakea, g/day | 2.70 | 9.55 | 23.37 | ||
| Dyslipidemia | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 46/135 | 46/136 | 38/135 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.68 (0.35–1.33) | 0.45 (0.18–1.11) | 0.09 | 0.81 (0.59–1.11) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.66 (0.33–1.34) | 0.36 (0.14–0.92) | 0.03 | 0.73 (0.52–1.03) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.66 (0.32–1.35) | 0.33 (0.13–0.88) | 0.02 | 0.71 (0.49–1.02) |
| TC ≥ 200 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 33/127 | 33/127 | 34/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.68 (0.32–1.43) | 0.62 (0.22–1.73) | 0.49 | 0.93 (0.67–1.29) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.65 (0.30–1.42) | 0.52 (0.18–1.50) | 0.30 | 0.88 (0.62–1.26) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.67 (0.31–1.47) | 0.56 (0.19–1.61) | 0.34 | 0.87 (0.60–1.24) |
| TG ≥ 150 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 14/127 | 11/127 | 11/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.41 (0.14–1.24) | 0.35 (0.08–1.56) | 0.29 | 1.24 (0.78–1.97) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.35 (0.11–1.10) | 0.26 (0.06–1.16) | 0.15 | 1.19 (0.72–1.99) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.32 (0.09–1.09) | 0.20 (0.04–1.09) | 0.11 | 1.04 (0.60–1.82) |
| LDL-C ≥ 130 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 24/127 | 21/127 | 24/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.64 (0.27–1.49) | 0.72 (0.23–2.28) | 0.80 | 1.00 (0.70–1.44) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.51 (0.21–1.24) | 0.54 (0.16–1.77) | 0.52 | 0.97 (0.66–1.44) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.50 (0.20–1.24) | 0.57 (0.17–1.91) | 0.60 | 0.93 (0.62–1.40) |
| HDL-C < 50 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 38/127 | 31/127 | 37/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.44–1.82) | 1.24 (0.46–3.33) | 0.53 | 1.19 (0.87–1.62) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.83 (0.39–1.76) | 1.10 (0.39–3.12) | 0.69 | 1.11 (0.80–1.54) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.86 (0.40–1.84) | 1.19 (0.41–3.47) | 0.61 | 1.09 (0.78–1.53) |
[i] Abbreviations: MUFA, monounsaturated fat; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride; LDL-C, LDL cholesterol; HDL-C, HDL cholesterol.
Dyslipidemia was defined as total cholesterol ≥200 mg/dL or triglyceride ≥150 mg/dL or LDL cholesterol ≥130 mg/dL.
Estimates are presented as odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s.
a Median (g/day) of energy-adjusted MUFA intakes were calculated.
b Model was adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), energy-adjusted protein (tertile), and energy-adjusted other types of fats (tertile).
c Model was adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), BMI (<18.5, 18.5- <23, 23- <25, ≥25 kg/m2), length of stay in Korea (<5 years, ≥5 years), employment status (employed, unemployed), region (Seoul, Incheon/Gyeonggido, Daejeon/Chuncheongnamdo), vigorous activity (no, yes), educational level (elementary or high school, association or vocational or college or above), energy-adjusted protein (tertile), and energy-adjusted other types of fats (tertile).
d Model was additionally adjusted for insulin resistance (no: HOMA-IR <2.5, yes: HOMA-IR ≥2.5).
e For 10 g/day increment of MUFA. Energy-adjusted protein and other types of fats were included in the model as continuous variables (g/day).
f The results remained similar when waist to hip circumference was adjusted instead of BMI in the multivariate model 1c (Supplementary Table 6).
Table 4
Odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s for dyslipidemia according to dietary polyunsaturated fat (PUFA) replacing carbohydrate intake.
| TERTILES OF ENERGY-ADJUSTED DIETARY PUFA INTAKE | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TERTILE 1 | TERTILE 2 | TERTILE 3 | P FOR TREND | PER 10 G OF PUFA INTAKEe | |
| Median intakea, g/day | 2.03 | 6.26 | 14.22 | ||
| Dyslipidemia | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 46/135 | 41/136 | 43/135 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.46–1.56) | 1.15 (0.57–2.33) | 0.53 | 1.08 (0.77–1.52) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.84 (0.43–1.62) | 1.24 (0.58–2.65) | 0.43 | 1.18 (0.81–1.71) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.87 (0.44–1.71) | 1.18 (0.54–2.58) | 0.56 | 1.16 (0.78–1.71) |
| TC ≥ 200 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 34/127 | 31/127 | 35/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.43–1.69) | 1.02 (0.46–2.29) | 0.80 | 1.11 (0.78–1.58) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.78 (0.37–1.64) | 1.03 (0.44–2.43) | 0.72 | 1.20 (0.82–1.76) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.79 (0.38–1.67) | 0.97 (0.41–2.30) | 0.88 | 1.17 (0.79–1.74) |
| TG ≥ 150 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 11/127 | 10/127 | 15/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 1.36 (0.48–3.83) | 2.93 (0.88–9.75) | 0.06 | 0.97 (0.58–1.64) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 1.39 (0.47–4.13) | 3.17 (0.91–11.10) | 0.05 | 0.99 (0.55–1.79) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 1.68 (0.53–5.33) | 3.43 (0.84–13.97) | 0.08 | 0.88 (0.44–1.77) |
| LDL-C ≥ 130 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 25/127 | 21/127 | 23/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.75 (0.34–1.65) | 0.80 (0.32–2.01) | 0.77 | 1.01 (0.67–1.50) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.88 (0.38–2.03) | 0.94 (0.35–2.51) | 0.98 | 1.11 (0.71–1.73) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.38–2.11) | 0.81 (0.29–2.23) | 0.69 | 1.05 (0.65–1.70) |
| HDL-C <50 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 37/127 | 32/127 | 37/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.87 (0.46–1.66) | 1.06 (0.49–2.28) | 0.76 | 0.81 (0.56–1.16) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 0.88 (0.44–1.74) | 1.08 (0.48–2.44) | 0.73 | 0.84 (0.57–1.23) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.44–1.81) | 0.97 (0.41–2.28) | 0.99 | 0.78 (0.51–1.17) |
[i] Abbreviations: PUFA, polyunsaturated fat; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride; LDL-C, LDL cholesterol; HDL-C, HDL cholesterol.
Dyslipidemia was defined as total cholesterol ≥200 mg/dL or triglyceride ≥150 mg/dL or LDL cholesterol ≥130 mg/dL.
Estimates are presented as odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s.
a Median (g/day) of energy-adjusted PUFA intakes were calculated.
b Model was adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), energy-adjusted protein (tertile), and energy-adjusted other types of fats (tertile).
c Model was adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), BMI (<18.5, 18.5- <23, 23- <25, ≥25 kg/m2), length of stay in Korea (<5 years, ≥5 years), employment status (employed, unemployed), region (Seoul, Incheon/Gyeonggido, Daejeon/Chuncheongnamdo), vigorous activity (no, yes), educational level (elementary or high school, association or vocational or college or above), energy-adjusted protein (tertile), and energy-adjusted other types of fats (tertile).
d Model was additionally adjusted for insulin resistance (no: HOMA-IR <2.5, yes: HOMA-IR ≥2.5).
e For 10 g/day increment of PUFA. Energy-adjusted protein and other types of fats were included in the model as continuous variables (g/day).
f The results remained similar when waist to hip circumference was adjusted instead of BMI in the multivariate model 1c (Supplementary Table 6).
Table 5
Odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s for dyslipidemia according to dietary total fat replacing carbohydrate intake.
| TERTILES OF ENERGY-ADJUSTED DIETARY TOTAL FAT INTAKE | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TERTILE 1 | TERTILE 2 | TERTILE 3 | P FOR TREND | PER 10 G OF TOTAL FAT INTAKEe | |
| Median intakea, g/day | 35.09 | 50.27 | 72.70 | ||
| Dyslipidemia | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 43/135 | 47/136 | 40/135 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 1.21 (0.71–2.04) | 1.13 (0.65–1.95) | 0.71 | 1.07 (0.95–1.20) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 1.21 (0.69–2.1) | 1.22 (0.68–2.18) | 0.52 | 1.10 (0.97–1.25) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 1.07 (0.6–1.89) | 1.14 (0.63–2.06) | 0.68 | 1.09 (0.96–1.25) |
| TC ≥ 200 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 33/127 | 36/127 | 31/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 1.15 (0.65–2.04) | 1.13 (0.62–2.06) | 0.72 | 1.09 (0.96–1.25) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 1.12 (0.61–2.03) | 1.26 (0.67–2.36) | 0.48 | 1.14 (0.99–1.31) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 1.05 (0.57–1.92) | 1.20 (0.63–2.27) | 0.57 | 1.13 (0.98–1.30) |
| TG ≥ 150 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 12/127 | 13/127 | 11/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 1.21 (0.52–2.82) | 1.19 (0.48–2.94) | 0.72 | 1.02 (0.84–1.23) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 1.23 (0.51–2.94) | 1.51 (0.59–3.84) | 0.39 | 1.08 (0.88–1.33) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.95(0.37–2.46) | 1.26 (0.47–3.42) | 0.63 | 1.04 (0.83–1.30) |
| LDL-C ≥ 130 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 20/127 | 25/127 | 24/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 1.38 (0.71–2.69) | 1.61 (0.80–3.21) | 0.20 | 1.12 (0.97–1.30) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 1.43 (0.71–2.88) | 1.84 (0.89–3.84) | 0.11 | 1.20 (1.02–1.40) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 1.30 (0.63–2.65) | 1.71 (0.81–3.60) | 0.16 | 1.18 (1.001–1.39) |
| HDL-C < 50 mg/dL | |||||
| No. of cases/total | 38/127 | 36/127 | 32/127 | ||
| Age- and energy-adjusted modelb | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.55–1.65) | 0.76 (0.43–1.35) | 0.33 | 0.90 (0.79–1.02) |
| Multivariate model 1c, f | 1.00 | 1.04 (0.58–1.85) | 0.83 (0.44–1.53) | 0.52 | 0.92 (0.80–1.05) |
| Multivariate model 2d | 1.00 | 0.92 (0.50–1.67) | 0.73 (0.38–1.39) | 0.33 | 0.89 (0.77–1.03) |
[i] Abbreviations: TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglyceride; LDL-C, LDL cholesterol; HDL-C, HDL cholesterol.
Dyslipidemia was defined as total cholesterol ≥200 mg/dL or triglyceride ≥150 mg/dL or LDL cholesterol ≥130 mg/dL.
Estimates are presented as odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s.
a Median (g/day) of energy-adjusted total fat intakes were calculated.
b Model was adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), and energy-adjusted protein (tertile).
c Model was adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), BMI (<18.5, 18.5- <23, 23- <25, ≥25 kg/m2), length of stay in Korea (<5 years, ≥5 years), employment status (employed, unemployed), region (Seoul, Incheon/Gyeonggido, Daejeon/Chuncheongnamdo), vigorous activity (no, yes), educational level (elementary or high school, association or vocational or college or above), and energy-adjusted protein (tertile).
d Model was additionally adjusted for insulin resistance (no: HOMA-IR <2.5, yes: HOMA-IR ≥2.5).
e For 10 g/day increment of total fat. Energy-adjusted protein were included in the model as continuous variables (g/day).
f The results remained similar when waist to hip circumference was adjusted instead of BMI in the multivariate model 1c (Supplementary Table 6).
Figure 1
Restricted cubic spline models for dyslipidemia according to energy-adjusted SFA replacing carbohydrate intake.
Models were adjusted for age (years, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), BMI (<18.5, 18.5- <23, 23– <25, ≥25 kg/m2), length of stay in Korea (<5 years, ≥5 years), employment status (employed, unemployed), region (Seoul, Incheon/Gyeonggido, Daejeon/Chuncheongnamdo), vigorous activity (no, yes), educational level (elementary or high school, association or vocational or college or above), energy-adjusted protein (g/day, continuous), energy-adjusted MUFA intake (g/day, continuous), and energy-adjusted PUFA (g/day, continuous), with five knots (P for curvature = 0.92, P for linearity = 0.02). A solid line indicates the odds ratio, and the dashed double-dotted line indicates 95% confidence intervals.
Table 6
Subgroup analysis by genetic polymorphisms related to LDL cholesterol according to SFA intake replacing carbohydrate intake.
| ENERGY ADJUSTED DIETARY SFA INTAKE (PER 10 G INCREMENT/DAY) | ||
|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI)c | P FOR INTERACTION | |
| Dyslipidemiaa | ||
| rs3846663 (T < C) | n = 374 | 0.43 |
| CC | 1.89 (0.84–4.23) | |
| TT + TC | 1.49 (0.87–2.57) | |
| rs1501908 (G < C) | n = 374 | 0.65 |
| CC | 1.28 (0.64–2.57) | |
| GG + GC | 1.94 (1.02–3.68) | |
| rs2650000 (A < C) | n = 374 | 0.96 |
| CC | 1.68 (0.68–4.13) | |
| AA + AC | 1.56 (0.93–2.62) | |
| rs6102059 (T < C) | n = 372 | 0.01 |
| CC | 1.61 (0.59–4.43) | |
| TT + TC | 1.35 (0.80–2.28) | |
| LDL-C ≥ 130 mg/dL | ||
| rs3846663 (T < C) | n = 352 | 0.75 |
| CC | 0.75 (0.22–2.56) | |
| TT + TC | 1.92 (1.03–3.58) | |
| rs1501908 (G < C) | n = 352 | 0.67 |
| CC | 1.83 (0.80–4.19) | |
| GG + GC | 1.44 (0.68–3.05) | |
| rs2650000 (A < C) | n = 352 | 0.89 |
| CC | 1.44 (0.52–4.02) | |
| AA+AC | 1.68 (0.90–3.14) | |
| rs6102059 (T < C) | n = 350 | 0.28 |
| CC | 1.64 (0.52–5.19) | |
| TT + TC | 1.58 (0.82–3.03) | |
[i] Abbreviations: SFA, saturated fat; LDL-C, LDL cholesterol.
a Dyslipidemia: total cholesterol ≥200 mg/dL or triglyceride ≥150 mg/dL or LDL-C ≥130 mg/dL.
c Estimates are presented as odds ratios (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s. Models were adjusted for age (years, continuous), energy-adjusted protein (g/day, continuous), energy-adjusted MUFA (g/day, continuous), energy-adjusted PUFA (g/day, continuous), total energy intake (kcal/day, continuous), BMI (<18.5, 18.5- <23, 23- <25, ≥25 kg/m2), length of stay in Korea (<5 years, ≥5 years), employment status (employed, unemployed), region (Seoul, Incheon/Gyeonggido, Daejeon/Chuncheongnamdo), vigorous activity (no, yes), and educational level (elementary or high school, association or vocational or college or above).
Table 7
Top five foods contributing to dietary total fat and specific types of fat intake.
| RANKING | TOTAL FAT | SFA | MUFA | PUFA |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Pork (17.97%) | Pork (39.05%) | Pork (38.67%) | Soybean oil (34.79%) |
| 2 | Chicken (9.31%) | Egg (8.42%) | Egg (10.60%) | Pork (13.74%) |
| 3 | Soybean oil (8.83%) | Milk (7.22%) | Soybean oil (9.24%) | Sesame oil (10.05%) |
| 4 | Egg (4.71%) | Soybean oil (6.11%) | Sesame oil (5.74%) | Corn oil (6.01%) |
| 5 | Beef (4.63%) | Mackerel (3.76%) | Mackerel (4.69%) | Egg (5.90%) |
| Cumulative % | 45.46% | 64.54% | 68.93% | 70.50% |
[i] Abbreviations: SFA, saturated fat; MUFA, monounsaturated fat; PUFA, polyunsaturated fat.