References
- 1Mills EJ, Bakanda C, Birungi J, et al. Life expectancy of persons receiving combination antiretroviral therapy in low-income countries: A cohort analysis from Uganda. Ann Intern Med. 2011; 155(4): 209–216. DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-155-4-201108160-00358
- 2Hontelez JA, Lurie MN, Newell ML, et al. Ageing with HIV in South Africa. AIDS. 2011; 25(13): 1665–1667. DOI: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834982ea
- 3Currier JS, Taylor A, Boyd F, et al. Coronary heart disease in HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003; 33(4): 506–512. DOI: 10.1097/00126334-200308010-00012
- 4Bloomfield GS, Khazanie P, Morris A, et al. HIV and noncommunicable cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases in low- and middle-income countries in the ART era: What we know and best directions for future research. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014; 67(1): S40–S53. DOI: 10.1097/QAI.0000000000000257
- 5Petersen M, Yiannoutsos CT, Justice A, Egger M. Observational research on NCDs in HIV-positive populations: Conceptual and methodological considerations. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014; 67(1): S8–S16. DOI: 10.1097/QAI.0000000000000253
- 6Cappuccio FP, Miller MA. Cardiovascular disease and hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa: Burden, risk and interventions. Intern Emerg Med. 2016; 11(3): 299–305. DOI: 10.1007/s11739-016-1423-9
- 7Frostegård J. Immunity, atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. BMC Med. 2013; 11: 117. Published 1 May 2013. DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-11-117
- 8Tsiodras S, Mantzoros C, Hammer S, Samore M. Effects of protease inhibitors on hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and lipodystrophy: A 5-year cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160(13): 2050–2056. DOI: 10.1001/archinte.160.13.2050
- 9UNAIDS Data 2018. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. 2019;
https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/unaids-data-2018_en.pdf . - 10Kengne AP, Mayosi BM. Readiness of the primary care system for non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Glob Health. 2014; 2(5): e247–e248. DOI: 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70212-8
- 11Hyle EP, Mayosi BM, Middelkoop K, et al. The association between HIV and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2017; 17(1): 954. DOI: 10.1186/s12889-017-4940-1
- 12Ashley EA, Raxwal VK, Froelicher VF. The prevalence and prognostic significance of electrocardiographic abnormalities. Curr Probl Cardiol. 2000; 25(1): 1–72. DOI: 10.1016/S0146-2806(00)70020-X
- 13Laurent S, Boutouyrie P, Asmar R, et al. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients. Hypertension. 2001; 37(5): 1236–1241. DOI: 10.1161/01.HYP.37.5.1236
- 14Chang LW, Grabowski MK, Ssekubugu R, et al. Heterogeneity of the HIV epidemic in agrarian, trading, and fishing communities in Rakai, Uganda: An observational epidemiological study. Lancet HIV. 2016; 3(8): e388–e396. DOI: 10.1016/S2352-3018(16)30034-0
- 15Grabowski MK, Serwadda DM, Gray RH, et al. HIV Prevention Efforts and Incidence of HIV in Uganda. N Engl J Med. 2017; 377(22): 2154–2166. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1702150
- 16Lloyd-Jones DM, Wilson PW, Larson MG, et al. Framingham risk score and prediction of lifetime risk for coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol. 2004; 94(1): 20–24. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2004.03.023
- 17Lakatta EG. Age-associated cardiovascular changes in health: Impact on cardiovascular disease in older persons. Heart Fail Rev. 2002; 7(1): 29–49. DOI: 10.1023/A:1013797722156
- 18D’Agostino, RB
Sr , Vasan RS, Pencina MJ, et al. General cardiovascular risk profile for use in primary care: The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2008; 117(6): 743–753. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.699579 - 19Laurent S, Cockcroft J, Van Bortel L, et al. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness: Methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J. 2006; 27(21): 2588–2605. DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehl254
- 20Podolec P, Kopeć G, Podolec J, et al. Aortic pulse wave velocity and carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity: Similarities and discrepancies. Hypertens Res. 2007; 30(12): 1151–1158. DOI: 10.1291/hypres.30.1151
- 21Thygesen K, Alpert JS, Jaffe AS, et al. Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction (2018). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018; 72(18): 2231–2264. DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.08.1038
- 22Sokolow M, Lyon TP. The ventricular complex in left ventricular hypertrophy as obtained by unipolar precordial and limb leads. 1949. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol. 2001; 6(4): 343–368. DOI: 10.1111/j.1542-474X.2001.tb00129.x
- 23Siegel RJ, Roberts WC. Electrocardiographic observations in severe aortic valve stenosis: correlative necropsy study to clinical, hemodynamic, and ECG variables demonstrating relation of 12-lead QRS amplitude to peak systolic transaortic pressure gradient. Am Heart J. 1982; 103(2): 210–221. DOI: 10.1016/0002-8703(82)90494-X
- 24Kahan T, Boutouyrie P, Cziráki A, et al. Aortic stiffness measured by a novel oscillometric method independently predicts cardiovascular morbidity and mortality: A study of 4146 subjects (abstract). 2013; European Society of Hypertension (ESH) 23rd Meeting on Hypertension and Vascular Protection; Milan.
June 14–17 . - 25WHO Expert Committee on Physical Status: the Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry (1993: Geneva, Switzerland) & World Health Organization. (1995). Physical status: the use of and interpretation of anthropometry, report of a WHO expert committee. World Health Organization.
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/37003 - 26Uganda Clinical Guidelines 2016. Ministry of Health. Uganda. 2016.
http://library.health.go.ug/publications/guidelines/uganda-clinical-guidelines-2016#:~:text=The%20Uganda%20Clinical%20Guidelines%20(UCG,limited%20number%20of%20specific%20conditions . - 27World Health Organization. (2011). Waist circumference and waist-hip ratio: report of a WHO expert consultation, Geneva, 8–11 December 2008. World Health Organization.
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44583 . - 28Pillay S, Hift R, Aldous C. A retrospective analysis of electrocardiographic abnormalities found in black South African patients with diabetes attending a regional hospital in KwaZulu-Natal. J Endocrinol Metab Diab South Africa. 2018; 23(1): 9–16. DOI: 10.1080/16089677.2017.1385965
- 29Dzudie A, Choukem SP, Adam AK, et al. Prevalence and determinants of electrocardiographic abnormalities in sub-Saharan African individuals with type 2 diabetes. Cardiovasc J Afr. 2012; 23(10): 533–537. DOI: 10.5830/CVJA-2012-054
- 30Jobe M, Kane A, Jones JC, et al. Electrocardiographic Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Among Gambian Diabetes Mellitus Patients. Ghana Med J. 2015; 49(1): 19–24. DOI: 10.4314/gmj.v49i1.4
- 31Lee G, Carrington M, Sliwa K, Stewart S. Are ECG abnormalities common in black Africans with heart failure? Results from the Heart of Soweto study. SA Heart J. 2008; 5(1): 4–11. DOI: 10.24170/5-1-2056
- 32Sliwa K, Lee GA, Carrington MJ, et al. Redefining the ECG in urban South Africans: Electrocardiographic findings in heart disease-free Africans. Int J Cardiol. 2013; 167(5): 2204–2209. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.06.005
- 33Kannel WB. Left ventricular hypertrophy as a risk factor in arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 1992; 13: 82–88. DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/13.suppl_D.82
- 34Stewart S, Libhaber E, Carrington M, et al. The clinical consequences and challenges of hypertension in urban-dwelling black Africans: Insights from the Heart of Soweto Study. Int J Cardiol. 2011; 146(1): 22–27. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.05.061
- 35Addo J, Smeeth L, Leon DA. Hypertension in sub-saharan Africa: A systematic review. Hypertension. 2007; 50(6): 1012–1018. DOI: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.093336
- 36Okoye IC, Anyabolu EN. Electrocardiographic abnormalities in treatment-naïve HIV subjects in south-east Nigeria. Cardiovasc J Afr. 2017; 28(5): 315–318. DOI: 10.5830/CVJA-2017-013
- 37Njoku PO, Ejim EC, Anisiuba BC, Ike SO, Onwubere BJ. Electrocardiographic findings in a cross-sectional study of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients in Enugu, south-east Nigeria. Cardiovasc J Afr. 2016; 27(4): 252–257. DOI: 10.5830/CVJA-2016-007
- 38Kentoffio K, Albano A, Koplan B, et al. Electrocardiographic Evidence of Cardiac Disease by Sex and HIV Serostatus in Mbarara, Uganda. Glob Heart. 2019; 14(4): 395–397. DOI: 10.1016/j.gheart.2019.08.007
- 39Soliman EZ, Prineas RJ, Roediger MP, et al. Prevalence and prognostic significance of ECG abnormalities in HIV-infected patients: Results from the Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy study. J Electrocardiol. 2011; 44(6): 779–785. DOI: 10.1016/j.jelectrocard.2010.10.027
- 40Awotedu KO, Mbeza BL, Awotedu AA, Ekpebegh C. Arterial Stiffness in HIV Patients in a Semi Urban Area of South Africa. Clin Microbiol. 2015; 4(3): 207. DOI: 10.4172/2327-5073.1000207
- 41Schillaci G, De Socio GV, Pucci G, et al. Aortic stiffness in untreated adult patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Hypertension. 2008; 52(2): 308–313. DOI: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.114660
- 42Siedner MJ, Kim JH, Nakku RS, et al. HIV infection and arterial stiffness among older-adults taking antiretroviral therapy in rural Uganda. AIDS. 2016; 30(4): 667–670. DOI: 10.1097/QAD.0000000000000992
- 43Hall V, Thomsen RW, Henriksen O, Lohse N. Diabetes in Sub Saharan Africa 1999-2011: Epidemiology and public health implications. A systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2011; 11: 564. Published 14 July 2011. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-564
- 44Steyn K, Sliwa K, Hawken S, et al. Risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in Africa: The INTERHEART Africa study. Circulation. 2005; 112(23): 3554–3561. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.563452
- 45Marijon E, Trinquart L, Jani D, et al. Coronary heart disease and associated risk factors in sub-Saharan Africans. J Hum Hypertens. 2007; 21(5): 411–414. DOI: 10.1038/sj.jhh.1002146
