Figure 1
Example of affect-based impulsivity. a) Baseline conditions. (i) Ada and Darius are watching a TV show but are experiencing technical difficulties. The picture resolution is poor due to the placement of the digital antenna. (ii) Ada considers different actions: watching the show on her laptop, fixing the TV, or continue watching the show on the TV (despite the poor resolution). (iii) Ada receives a text inviting her and Darius to a potluck the next evening. b) Interpersonal conflict leads to change in affective state. (i) Ada and Darius disagree over what baked good to bring to the potluck. (ii) Ada experiences an increase in negative affect and labels her emotional experience “shame.” (iii) Too distressed to continue the conversation with Darius, Ada decides to leave the apartment. c) Negative affect alters valuation of different actions and motivates impulsive behavior. (i) Ada’s intense emotional state persists, and she considers actions that she anticipates will reduce her current negative affective state: drinking alcohol, using a different emotion regulation skill (e.g., deep breathing), and returning home to talk through the conflict with Darius. (ii) While on her walk, Ada encounters a sign for a bar, which functions as a conditioned reward cue. (iii) Ada vigorously pursues the reward – alcohol – and quickly becomes drunk.
Table 1
How does affective state shape decision processes across the four stages of a decision? N.B. Though our focus is on impulsive behaviors that are maladaptive, we anticipate that similar mechanisms may explain adaptive responses to an emotion (e.g., grizzly bear sighting ➔ fear ➔ freeze).
| STAGE OF DECISION-MAKING | COGNITIVE AND REINFORCEMENT LEARNING MECHANISMS | NEUROCOMPUTATIONAL AND NEUROENDOCRINE TARGETS | |
|---|---|---|---|
| i) | Whether to act? |
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| ii) | Which actions to consider? |
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| iii) | How to decide among actions? |
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| iv) | How vigorously to engage in action? |
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Figure 2
A stressor (1) induces negative affect. Increase in negative affect elicits concomitant changes in circulating levels of (2) norepinephrine (NE) and glucocorticoids (GCs). (3) GCs enhance dopamine (DA) reactivity in nucleus accumbens (NAcc) shell, and NE and GCs blunt medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) functioning. (4) Altered functioning in mPFC and NAcc shell results in altered balance of Pavlovian and goal-directed decision systems. Heightened influence of Pavlovian systems on decision-making amplifies influence of reward cues and (5) invigorates pursuit of rewards.