Table 2
Details of the survey respondents where complete travel information was provided.
| GROUP | COUNT | FREQUENCY (%) | % DAYS OF REMOTE WORK | MEDIAN CUMULATIVE ANNUAL TRAVEL-TO-WORK LOCATIONS (IQR) (km) | MEDIAN CUMULATIVE ANNUAL COMMUTE EMISSIONS (IQR) (kgCO2e) | MEDIAN CUMULATIVE ANNUAL COMMUTE TIME (h) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||||||
| Female | 178 | 66.4% | 60% | 2,864 (1,296–5,834) | 51.7 (0–342) | 131 |
| Male | 85 | 31.7% | 40% | 2,422 (803–7,202) | 0 (0–117) | 145 |
| Non-binary | 3 | 1.1% | 40% | 1,547 (1,001–1,989) | 0 (0–6) | 88 |
| N/A | 2 | 0.7% | 15% | 25,269 (14,713–35,825) | 2,561 (1,337–3,785) | 469 |
| Age (years) | ||||||
| 18–24 | 10 | 3.7% | 12.5% | 1,322 (539–2,962) | 0 (0–11.3) | 169 |
| 25–44 | 134 | 50.0% | 60% | 2,407 (1,315–5,357) | 29.2 (0–108) | 135 |
| 45–64 | 122 | 45.5% | 60% | 3,165 (884–7,266) | 66.1 (0–408) | 133 |
| 65–70 | 2 | 0.7% | 20% | 14,705 (10,565–18,844) | 1,241 (621–1,862) | 895 |
| Household income (€) | ||||||
| €0–14,999 | 8 | 3.0% | 50% | 1,173 (351–1,593) | 0 (0–0) | 115 |
| €15,000–19,999 | 6 | 2.2% | 30% | 3,210 (1,567–3,348) | 0 (0–0) | 220 |
| €20,000–39,999 | 24 | 8.9% | 55% | 3,341 (1,658–5,477) | 44.4 (0–124) | 122 |
| €40,000–69,999 | 76 | 28.4% | 50% | 2,305 (795–5,586) | 0 (0–108) | 131 |
| €70,000–99,999 | 69 | 25.7% | 60% | 3,525 (1,642–7,359) | 30.1 (0–203) | 150 |
| €100,000–119,999 | 36 | 13.4% | 67% | 2,782 (1,230–6,140) | 44.7 (0–124) | 129 |
| €120,000–149,999 | 17 | 6.3% | 40% | 3,100 (2,171–5,844) | 0 (0–200) | 148 |
| ≥ €150,000 | 12 | 4.5% | 58% | 2,337 (793–4,052) | 4.8 (0–54.2) | 105 |
| N/A | 20 | 7.5% | 78% | 2,080 (863–4,154) | 20.1 (0–187) | 71 |
| Professional status | ||||||
| Entry-level employee | 62 | 23.1% | 6% | 2,328 (695–5,293) | 24.4 (0–233) | 118 |
| Senior employee | 109 | 40.7% | 60% | 3,100 (1,358–7,393) | 59.2 (0–362) | 132 |
| Worker | 54 | 20.1% | 54% | 2,814 (1,321–4,910) | 30.2 (0–131) | 157 |
| Manager | 14 | 5.2% | 40% | 2,997 (440–4,911) | 35.3 (2–179) | 144 |
| Other | 8 | 3.0% | 77% | 1,692 (509–14,704) | 0 (0–16) | 95 |
| N/A | 21 | 7.8% | 40% | 2,073 (1,411–5,545) | 44.5 (0–155) | 121 |
[i] Note: IQR = interquartile range; N/A = not available.
Figure 1
Percentage of individual trips to different work locations by different travel modes.
Note: Percentages within work location groups sum to more than 100% due to multimodal trips.
Figure 2
Density plots showing the distributions of travel distance (top), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (middle) and travel time (bottom) to different work locations for single return trips (left) and the cumulative annual for all trips (right).
Note: Log scale.
Table 3:
Typologies of travel patterns of remote workers based on travel mode, trip distances and frequencies.
| CLUSTER | TYPOLOGY |
|---|---|
| Cluster 0: Wealthy, regular car users (high emitters) | Dominated by car use (modal share = 0.76), resulting in the lowest mode diversity. Secondary mode is bus. Trips are consistent in length, with the second highest median distance. Members have the highest mean income by a large margin (about €2,000 above the next highest cluster). Emissions are high: second in mean trip emissions and third in cumulative emissions |
| Cluster 1: Commuting urban transit users (low emitters) | Main mode is bus (modal share = 0.26), followed by local tram. This cluster exhibits the highest trip frequency, indicating low remote work prevalence. Emissions are low due to a heavy reliance on public transport |
| Cluster 2: Active travellers with cars (low emitters) | Walking is the primary mode (modal share = 0.27), with car as the secondary mode. High mode diversity and moderate spread of trip distances suggest complex travel behaviour. Emissions are among the lowest, both per trip and cumulatively. Members have the lowest mean income, though still above the Finnish median |
| Cluster 3: High-emitting long-distance travellers (highest emitters) | Car is the main mode, followed by long-distance train. This group has the highest emissions per trip and cumulatively. Despite high emissions, mode diversity is notable due to train use. Median trip distance is the highest, more than twice that of the next cluster. The distribution of trip distance is the largest, capturing the long-distance journeys, but also the flexibility in commute distances associated with car usage |
| Cluster 4: Walking car users (low emitters) | Like cluster 2, but with a higher walking share (0.30) and slightly less mode diversity. Emissions are higher than cluster 2, both per trip and cumulatively |
| Cluster 5: Walking commuters (lowest emitters) | Smallest cluster and the lowest emitters overall. Walking is the dominant mode (modal share = 0.57), followed by bus. Trips are short (lowest median distance), and commuting frequency is high |
| Cluster 6: High-frequency car commuters (high emitters) | Car accounts for 0.43 of modal share. While average trip emissions are moderate, cumulative emissions are high due to frequent travel. This cluster has the lowest median trip length among car-dominant clusters (0, 3 and 6). Compared with cluster 3, trips are shorter and mode diversity is lower, though income levels are similar. Compared with cluster 0, car usage is less dominant and the relative spread of trip distances is higher |
| Cluster 7: High-frequency urban remote workers (low emitters) | Characterised by the lowest commuting frequency and a strong preference for tram (modal share = 0.56). Cumulative emissions are low (second lowest after cluster 5). Trip lengths are consistent with narrowest trip length distribution), and members have the second-highest income, typical of core Finnish urban areas |
Table 4
Statistics of the typology clusters.
| CLUSTER | N | MAIN MODE | MODE DIVERSITY | MEAN TRIP FREQUENCY (± SD) | MEDIAN TRIP LENGTH (± IQR) (km) | MEAN TRIP CO2 EMISSIONS (± SD) (kg) | MEAN CUMULATIVE CO2 EMISSIONS (± SD) (kg) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cluster 0: Wealthy, regular car users (high emitters) | 35 | Car (0.76) | 1.12 | 85.05 (± 51.43) | 13.83 (± 14.67) | 2.16 (± 2.10) | 155.84 (± 170.78) |
| Cluster 1: Commuting urban transit users (low emitters) | 20 | Bus (0.26) | 2.36 | 144.42 (± 77.27) | 7.91 (± 8.98) | 0.29 (± 0.75) | 51.86 (± 139.16) |
| Cluster 2: Active travellers with cars (low emitters) | 39 | Walking (0.27) | 2.56 | 99.58 (± 87.91) | 5.50 (± 11.31) | 0.40 (± 1.19) | 20.71 (± 64.42) |
| Cluster 3: High-emitting long-distance travellers (highest emitters) | 72 | Car (0.35) | 2.59 | 99.28 (± 87.36) | 31.67 (± 160.90) | 6.19 (± 18.20) | 287.83 (± 991.73) |
| Cluster 4: Walking car users (low emitters) | 39 | Walking (0.31) | 2.43 | 117.44 (± 102.86) | 3.99 (± 7.83) | 1.69 (± 7.25) | 70.35 (± 700.37) |
| Cluster 5: Walking commuters (lowest emitters) | 13 | Walking (0.57) | 1.41 | 138.86 (± 54.97) | 2.60 (± 5.74) | 0.04 (± 0.11) | 5.66 (± 16.55) |
| Cluster 6: High-frequency car commuters (high emitters) | 35 | Car (0.44) | 1.98 | 138.39 (± 87.18) | 8.29 (± 12.88) | 1.52 (± 3.31) | 185.82 (± 346.32) |
| Cluster 7: High-frequency urban remote workers (low emitters) | 15 | Local tram (0.56) | 1.70 | 56.88 (± 35.45) | 9.23 (± 4.76) | 0.53 (± 1.82) | 14.72 (± 44.34) |
[i] Note: N is the number of members in the cluster. The main travel mode is the modal means of transport and is given along with the proportion of trips that use it in parentheses. Mode diversity is calculated as the entropy of the travel mode distribution. Uncertainties for means are taken to be the standard deviation (SD). For the median trip frequency, the uncertainty is given as the interquartile range (IQR).
Figure 3
Current (blue) and optimised locations of potential new co-working spaces (red) that are within 15-min walks of potential remote working populations.