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Post-disaster reconstruction and ethics: the power of social capital Cover

Post-disaster reconstruction and ethics: the power of social capital

Buildings and Cities
Volume 7 (2026): Issue 1
By: Buddhinie Ubesingha,  George Ofori,  George Agyekum-Mensah and  Daniel Frings  
Open Access
|Mar 2026

Figures & Tables

Table 1

Case studies and their key contextual differences.

COUNTRYDISASTERIMPACTWORLD BANK INCOME GROUP/ECONOMYGOVERNANCE AND CORRUPTION (CPI 2023 RANK)KEY SOCIO-ECONOMIC INDICATORS (HDI RANK/POVERTY)PERTINENT CONTEXT FOR PDR
ItalyL’Aquila earthquake (April 2009)308 deaths, 66,000 homeless, 3,893 buildings destroyed, 69,591 buildings damagedHigh-income/advanced, diversifiedEuropean Union member; strong formal institutions. (rank 42/180)HDI = 0.906 (very high); poverty = 20.1%; life expectancy = 83 yearsHigh institutional capacity but complex bureaucracy and noted corruption risks
MozambiqueCyclone Idai (March 2019)905 deaths, 111,163 houses destroyed, 112,735 houses affectedLow-income/agrarian, aid dependentPost-colonial; fragile institutions; high aid reliance (rank 145/180)HDI = 0.461 (low); poverty = 54.7%; life expectancy = 59 yearsPervasive poverty, weak governance and high corruption risk shape donor-dependent reconstruction
IndonesiaEarthquake and tsunami (September 2018)4,340 deaths, over 70,000 houses damagedUpper-middle income/newly industrialisedDecentralised governance; mixed formal–informal systems (rank 115/180)HDI = 0.716 (medium); poverty = 10.1%; significant gender inequalityLarge-scale, state-led programmes with international loans; challenges in coordination and integrity
NepalNepal earthquake (April 2015)8,964 deaths, thousands of houses destroyedLower-middle income/fragile, post-conflictNascent federal system; post-conflict fragility (rank 108/180)HDI = 0.601 (medium); poverty = 20.3%; deep gender disparitiesDonor-driven reconstruction in a fragile state with complex geography and evolving institutions
Sri LankaLandslide (May 2016)235 houses destroyed; 1665 houses damagedLower-middle income/volatile, service basedUnitary state; strong social indicators but clientelism (rank 115/180)HDI = 0.780 (high); poverty = 14.3%; high education, low female labour participationState-led, multi-scheme approaches within a context of political patronage and economic instability

[i] Note: CPI = corruption perceptions index; HDI = human development index; PDR = post-disaster reconstruction.

Sources: Transparency International (2023); UNDP (2024); World Bank (2024).

Table 2

Details of interviews conducted in each case.

CASEINTERVIEWEE GROUPPROFESSIONAL BACKGROUNDINTERVIEWEE CODEGENDEREXPERIENCE (years)DATE OF INTERVIEWDURATION (min)
ItalyBuilt-environment professionalsEngineerIT1BEFemale611 January 202468
EngineerIT2BEFemale729 April 202458
ArchitectIT3BEFemale55 December 202358
EngineerIT4BEMale1220 April 202459
EngineerIT5BEMale610 May 202462
EngineerIT6BEMale811 January 202448
MozambiqueBuilt-environment professionalsArchitectMO1BEMale1230 October 202351
ArchitectMO2BEMale208 November 202357
ArchitectMO3BEMale227 November 202356
EngineerMO4BEMale1429 April 202451
ArchitectMO5BEMale831 December 202352
Non-built-environment professionalsProject managerMO6NBEMale77 March 202458
IndonesiaBuilt-environment professionalsEngineerIN1BEMale2716 January 202456
ArchitectIN2BEMale1420 April 202455
EngineerIN3BEMale1211 January 202463
Engineer–academicIN5BEMale1820 April 202454
Non-built-environment professionalsAdvisor: shelter and settlementIN4NBEMale3312 April 202474
National coordinatorIN6NBEMale217 March 202457
NepalBuilt-environment professionalsArchitectNE1BEFemale1213 January 202458
EngineerNE3BEMale824 December 202391
EngineerNE4BEMale102 January 202465
EngineerNE5BEMale1415 January 202446
ArchitectNE6BEFemale97 January 202458
Non-built-environment professionalsProject coordinatorNE2NBEFemale87 January 202459
Sri LankaBuilt-environment professionalsEngineerSL1BEMale1214 February 202446
EngineerSL3BEMale1615 February 202464
EngineerSL4BEMale2315 February 202446
PlannerSL5BEMale116 February 202454
ArchitectSL6BEFemale912 February 202453
PlannerSL7BEMale1216 February 202458
Non-built-environment professionalsDisaster management directorSL2NBEMale257 February 202463
GeologistSL8NBEMale1412 February 202468
Advisor UNDRRSL9NBEMale2321 May 202449

[i] Note: UNDRR = United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction.

Table 3

Six-phased approach to data analysis.

PHASEDESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
1. Data familiarisationAll interviews transcribed and repeatedly read; initial notes on ethical challenges and enabling factors noted
2. Initial codingData coded inductively in NVivo 14 (e.g. ‘bribes unreported’, ‘gender exclusion’, ‘trust-building gestures’). Codes collated by case and theme
3. Theme developmentRelated codes grouped into candidate themes (e.g. ‘socially embedded corruption’, ‘community empowerment’). Data extracts assembled for each theme
4. Theme reviewThemes reviewed against coded extracts and full dataset; thematic map created; themes refined
5. Theme refinementFinal themes named and defined; core narratives clarified
6. Final analysisRepresentative quotations selected; themes contextualised within cases and the literature; narrative structured around ethical challenges and measures

[i] Source: Adopted from Braun & Clarke (2012).

Table 4

Coding structure for ethical challenge to post-disaster reconstruction (PDR) posed by social capital.

THEMESUBTHEMECODES
Negative societal perceptionDistrust of formal channelsAvoidance of official support; suspicion of intentions, impediments to fund delivery and compliance
In-group prioritisationWithholding support from outsiders; prioritisation based on tribal/socio-economic identity
Poor construction know-howTechnical skill gapsLack of technical construction skills; non-compliance with building standards
Gendered labourWomen lacking construction skills; communities collectively reconstructing
Vulnerability to exploitationAcceptance of inferior standards; pressure from opportunistic actors
Dependent mentalityCulture of dependencyMendicant approach; ‘vicious cycle’ of aid; creating situations for self-benefit
Low expectationsAcceptance of low-quality assistance; immediate individual benefit over collective recovery
Socially embedded corruptionNormalisation of corruptionDaily bribes; normalised behaviour; corruption as part of the social fabric
Impunity and lack of reportingFear of reprisal; lack of evidence for investigations; distrust in reporting mechanisms
Subtle manifestationsUnethical commissions; social gifts and friendships for corrupt exchanges
Gender disparitySystemic sexism in professionMale-dominated environment; marginalisation of women
Exploitative power dynamicsSuperiority complex; exploiting females; hostile work environment
Abuse of vulnerable groupsAbuse of power; child abuse; secondary trauma
Resistance to changeCultural conservatismReluctance for new materials; deep-seated conservatism
Negotiating preferencesRejection of safer alternatives; conflict with technical best practices
Pre-existing complexitiesSystemic governance IssuesPre-existing corruption, nepotism, crime complicating reconstruction
Financial governance issuesHigh corruption risk associated with large financial flows in housing programs
Infrastructural deficitsPre-existing lack of basic infrastructure
Table 5

Coding structure for enhancing post-disaster reconstruction (PDR) ethics through social capital.

THEMESUBTHEMECODES
Promoting mutual dependencyCollaborative frameworksCollaborative framework; mutual interdependence
Valuing community inputShared positive engagement; shared goals
Developing social trustBuilding trust via engagementTransparent communication; empathetic engagement
Multiplier effect of trustWord-of-mouth dissemination; earned credibility; community support for inquiries
Empowering the communityParticipatory decision-makingInvolving in resettlement decisions; advocacy for behavioural change
Transformative empowermentTraining for women; psychological empowerment
Long-term resilience educationDisaster resilience in early education; environmental awareness
Construction skills for the communityAddressing skill gapsTargeted training programmes; accommodating local methodologies; providing technical knowledge
Challenging gender normsUnderstanding women’s roles; diversifying the workforce
Emotional attachmentLived experience as a motivatorPersonal disaster experience; emotional connection to community
Empathy and community responsibilityDriving force for ethical behaviour; principles of honesty and fairness; wanting to be treated ethically
Using social capital for good governanceCommunity accountabilityPublic scrutiny; community feedback mechanisms; challenging political pressure; curbing favouritism
Participatory monitoringFocus group meetings; digital platforms (social media) for reporting; civil society participation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/bc.704 | Journal eISSN: 2632-6655
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Language: English
Submitted on: Sep 5, 2025
|
Accepted on: Mar 3, 2026
|
Published on: Mar 30, 2026
Published by: Ubiquity Press
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
Keywords:
post-disaster reconstruction,
social capital,
ethics,
built environment,
disaster recovery,
disaster reconstruction,
community empowerment,
professionalism

© 2026 Buddhinie Ubesingha, George Ofori, George Agyekum-Mensah, Daniel Frings, published by Ubiquity Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

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