Figure 1
Annual average of PM2.5 concentration, children’s asthma and pneumonia cases in Greater Jakarta, 2020–2022.
Figure 2
Monthly trend of children’s pneumonia and asthma during the COVID‑19 pandemic in Greater Jakarta, March 2020 to December 2022.
Table 1
Pearson correlation and regression analysis of PM2.5 with pneumonia and asthma by cities/districts in Greater Jakarta.
| CITY/DISTRICT | OUTCOME | R2 | NUMBER AND PERCENT OF CASES PER 15 µG/M3 INCREASE IN PM2.5 | P‑VALUE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NO. OF CASES | % | ||||
| Bekasi City | Pneumonia | 0.29 | 139 | 2.0 | 0.01 |
| Bekasi District | Pneumonia | 0.09 | 211 | 3.0 | 0.10 |
| Tangerang City | Pneumonia | 0.08 | 274 | 4.0 | 0.13 |
| Asthma | 0.07 | 99 | 47.5 | 0.17 | |
| South Tangerang City | Pneumonia | 0.04 | 289 | 4.2 | 0.22 |
| Bogor City | Pneumonia | 0.01 | 78 | 1.1 | 0.64 |
| Depok City | Pneumonia | 0.37 | 420 | 6.1 | 0.004 |
| West Jakarta | Pneumonia | 0.03 | 275 | 4.0 | 0.26 |
| Asthma | 0.01 | 56 | 26.5 | 0.5 | |
| Central Jakarta | Pneumonia | 0.11 | 245 | 3.5 | 0.02 |
| Asthma | 0.07 | 47 | 22.7 | 0.06 | |
| South Jakarta | Pneumonia | 0.08 | 305 | 4.4 | 0.04 |
| Asthma | 0.06 | 102 | 49.0 | 0.09 | |
| East Jakarta | Pneumonia | 0.07 | 361 | 5.2 | 0.07 |
| Asthma | 0.03 | 174 | 83.1 | 0.21 | |
| North Jakarta | Pneumonia | 0.02 | 395 | 5.7 | 0.39 |
| Asthma | 0.01 | 72 | 34.5 | 0.64 | |
| Greater Jakarta | Pneumonia | 0.02 | 277 | 4.0 | 0.002 |
| Asthma | 0.001 | 75 | 36,0 | 0.91 | |
Table 2
Recommendations to address public health concern in Greater Jakarta.
| INTERVENTIONS | IMPLEMENTATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS |
|---|---|
| Strengthen Air Quality Monitoring and Data Granularity | Enhanced air quality monitoring at a neighborhood level to identify pollution hotspots. Expanding the number of real‑time PM2.5 sensors and integrating pollution data with health records can help researchers and policymakers better understand localized impacts. |
| Implement Targeted Pollution Control Measures | Stricter emissions regulations should be enforced, particularly for industrial zones and high‑traffic areas. This includes phasing out high‑emission vehicles, enforcing low‑emission zones, and strengthening regulations on industrial pollutants. |
| Develop Community‑Specific Health Interventions | Localized interventions, such as distributing air purifiers to households in high‑risk areas and promoting the use of protective masks during high‑pollution periods, can help mitigate health risks. Schools and childcare centers should also be prioritized for improved indoor air filtration systems. |
| Expand Public Awareness Campaigns | Educational initiatives should inform parents and caregivers about the dangers of PM2.5 exposure and effective preventive measures. Public health campaigns can encourage behavioral changes, such as limiting outdoor activities during high‑pollution days and adopting cleaner cooking practices. |
| Invest in Long‑Term Research on Respiratory Health | Further research is needed to explore additional environmental and socioeconomic factors contributing to pneumonia and asthma. Longitudinal studies can provide deeper insights into the long‑term health impacts of PM2.5 exposure and guide evidence‑based policy decisions. |