Figure 1
Flowchart.
Table 1
Baseline socioeconomic, lifestyle, work, and housing characteristics of PIPA newborns. PIPA Cohort Project, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| Socioeconomic characteristics | |||||
| Ethnicity (760)* | White: 25.7% (195) | Non White: 74.3% (565) | |||
| Schooling (760)* | Incomplete high school: 30.5% (232) | Complete high school: 69.5% (528) | |||
| Maternal age (757)* | Mean: 29 years ± 6·86y (Min: 16y–Max: 46y) | ||||
| 16–29 years: 52.4% (397) | > 29 years: 47.6% (360) | ||||
| Single mother (760)* | Yes: 17.8% (135) | No: 82.2% (625) | |||
| Percapta income (631)* | Mean: USD$188.00 ± US$168.69 (Min: ·00–Max: 1,987.00); Median: USD$142.00 | ||||
| Up to USD$142.00: 49.3% (311) | > USD$142.00: 50.7% (320) | ||||
| Up to USD$188.00: 62% (391) | > USD$188.00: 38% (240) | ||||
| Government assistance (761)* | Yes: 21.9% (167) | No: 78.1% (594) | |||
| Lifestyle characteristics | |||||
| Alcohol (761)* | Yes: 40.3% (307) | No: 59.7% (454) | |||
| Current smoking during pregnancy (pregnant and her family) (765)* | Yes: 28.9% (221) | No: 71.1% (544) | |||
| Fish consumption per week (765)* | Consume once a week or more: 63.7% (490) | Not consumed: 36.3% (275) | |||
| Work characteristics | |||||
| Work (759)* | Yes: 47.7% (362) | No: 52.3% (397) | |||
| Has salary (761)* | Yes: 52.7% (401) | No: 47.3% (360) | |||
| Work during pregnancy (761)* | Yes: 56.5% (430) | No: 43.5% (331) | |||
| Work activity at home (760)* | Yes: 17% (129) | No: 83% (631) | |||
| Housing characteristics | |||||
| Brick house (759)* | Yes: 78.3% (594) | No: 21.7% (165) | |||
| Sewage treatment (740)* | Yes: 97.2% (719) | No: 7% (21) | |||
| Garbage collection (760)* | Yes: 90.4% (687) | No: 9.6% (73) | |||
| Time living in the same household (739)* | Less than 1 year: 10.7% (79) | More than 1 year: 89.3% (660) | |||
| Type of water used (756)* | Drinking water: 61.1% (462) | Mineral water: 32% (242) | Other: 6.9% (52) | ||
| Live in low-income communities (slums) (759)* | Yes: 54.9% (417) | No: 45.1% (342) | |||
| Live near heavy-traffic streets (759)* | Yes: 43.5% (330) | No: 56.5% (429) | |||
| House makeover (760)* | Yes: 39.5% (300) | No: 60.5% (460) | |||
| Live near business establishment (765) * | Yes: 56.7% (434) | No: 43.3% (331) | |||
| Urban zones residence (765)* | (AP 1) Center 10.7% (82) | (AP 2) South 48.6% (372) | (AP 3) North 27.2% (208) | (AP 4) West 4 5.8% (44) | (AP 5) West 5 7.7% (59) |
Table 2
Profile of metals concentrations in newborns’ cord blood. PIPA Cohort Project, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| METALS | N | DETECTION RATE* | MEDIAN | MIN-MAX | P5 | P10 | P25 | P75 | P90 | P95 | P97.5 | P99 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arsenic (µg/L) | 743 | 60.6 (450) | 0.1300 | 0.00–11.32 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.2900 | 0.6600 | 1.0300 | 1.6260 | 2.7352 |
| Lead (µg/dL) | 750 | 98.9 (742) | 0.8000 | 0.00–13.70 | 0.4000 | 0.4000 | 0.6000 | 1.2000 | 1.9000 | 2.4000 | 3.4225 | 5.2470 |
| Mercury (µg/L) | 749 | 94.5 (708) | 0.8000 | 0.00–11.60 | 0.000 | 0.2000 | 0.4000 | 1.5000 | 2.9000 | 4.0000 | 4.8250 | 6.800 |
| Concentration category | Undetectable | Lower concentration1 | Higher concentration2 | Median3 | ||||||||
| Arsenic | 39.4% (293) | 29.3% (218) | 31.2% (232) | 0.2300 | ||||||||
| Lead | 1.1% (8) | 40.7% (305) | 58.3% (437) | 0.8000 | ||||||||
| Mercury | 5.5% (41) | 44.3% (332) | 50.2% (376) | 0.8000 | ||||||||
| Higher concentration2 | Yes | No | ||||||||||
| Higher concentration of all three metals at the same time (PbAsHg) | 11.4% (87) | 88.6% (678) | ||||||||||
| Higher concentration of at least one of the three metals | 80.7% (617) | 19.3% (148) | ||||||||||
| Higher concentration of two metals at the same time—Arsenic and Lead (AsPb) | 18% (138) | 82% (627) | ||||||||||
| Higher concentration of two metals at the same time—Arsenic and Mercury (AsHg) | 18.2% (139) | 81.8% (626) | ||||||||||
| Higher concentration of two metals at the same time—Lead and Mercury (PbHg) | 31.7% (238) | 68.3% (512) | ||||||||||
[i] P5: 5th percentile; P10: 10th percentile; P25: 25th percentile; P75: 75th percentile; P90: 90th percentile; P97.5: 97.5th percentile; P99: 99th percentile.
[ii] *Detection rate: percentage of samples in which the metal was detected in the total number of samples in which this metal was analyzed.
[iii] 1Lower concentration is given by values less than the median of detectable values.
[iv] 2Higher concentration is given by values greater than, or equal to, the median of detectable values.
[v] 3Median among detectable.
Table 3
Socio-environmental conditions and higher concentrations1 of metals in newborns’ cord blood. PIPA Cohort Project, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS: % (N) | P-VALUE* | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arsenic (n = 232) | ||||||
| Maternal age | Up to 29 years: 28.4% (110) | 30 years or more: 34.8% (122) | 0.065 | |||
| Living near heavy-traffic streets | Yes: 28.1% (91) | No: 33.9% (141) | 0.054 | |||
| Fish consumption per week | Does not consume: 25% (68) | Consume once a week or more: 35.3% (156) | 0.002 | |||
| Lead (n = 437) | ||||||
| Mother’s schooling | Incomplete high school: 53.7% (122) | Complete high school or more: 60.4% (313) | 0.053 | |||
| Urban zones residence | (AP 1) Center: 67.1% (55) | (AP 2) South: 52.9% (191) | (AP 3) North: 66.8% (137) | (AP 4) West 1: 54.5% (24) | (AP 5) West 2: 51.7% (30) | 0.006 |
| Live in low-income communities | Yes: 54.3% (221) | No: 62.9% (212) | 0.011 | |||
| Live near heavy-traffic streets | Yes: 63.3% (205) | No: 54.3% (228) | 0.014 | |||
| Live near business establishment | Yes: 61.1% (262) | No: 54.5% (175) | 0.072 | |||
| Worked during the pregnancy | Yes: 61.4% (258) | No: 54.3% (177) | 0.050 | |||
| Pregnancy tobacco exposure (the mother or some parent was an active smoker) | Yes: 65.7% (142) | No: 55.2% (295) | 0.008 | |||
| Mercury (n = 376) | ||||||
| Maternal age | Up to 29 years: 45.1% (176) | 30 years or more: 56.4% (198) | 0.002 | |||
| Worked during the pregnancy | Yes: 53.8% (226) | No: 45.5% (148) | 0.025 | |||
| Pregnancy tobacco exposure (the mother or some parent was an active smoker) | Yes: 56% (121) | No: 47·8% (255) | 0·043 | |||
| Fish consumption per week | Does not consume: 37.4% (102) | Consume once a week or more: 58.9% (264) | <0·001 | |||
| Higher concentration to all three metals at the same time (n = 87) | ||||||
| Fish consumption per week | Does not consume: 7.2% (20) | Consume once a week or more: 14.7% (67) | 0.002 | |||
| Higher concentration to at least one of the three metals (n = 617) | ||||||
| Urban zones residence | (AP 1) Center: 89% (73) | (AP 2) South: 76.1% (283) | (AP 3) North: 84.6% (176) | (AP 4) West 1: 81.8% (36) | (AP 5) West 2: 83.1% (49) | 0.026 |
| Live in low-income communities | Yes: 78.2% (326) | No: 83.6% (286) | 0.059 | |||
| Live near heavy-traffic streets | Yes: 84.5% (279) | No: 77.6% (333) | 0.017 | |||
| Worked during the pregnancy | Yes: 83% (357) | No: 77.6% (257) | 0.062 | |||
| Fish consumption per week | Does not consume:75.6% (211) | Consume once a week or more: 83.6% (382) | 0.024 | |||
| Higher concentration to two metals at the same time—Arsenic and Lead (AsPb) (n = 138) | ||||||
| Fish consumption per week | Does not consume:14% (39) | Consume once a week or more: 20.6% (94) | 0.021 | |||
| Higher concentration to two metals at the same time—Arsenic and Mercury (AsHg) (n = 139) | ||||||
| Maternal age | Up to 29 years: 16·1% (64) | 30 years or more: 20·8% (75) | 0.094 | |||
| Fish consumption per week | Does not consume: 11·5% (32) | Consume once a week or more: 23·2% (106) | <0.001 | |||
| Higher concentration to two metals at the same time—Lead and Mercury (PbHg) (n = 238) | ||||||
| Maternal age | Up to 29 years: 27.9% (109) | 30 years or more: 36.2% (127) | 0.015 | |||
| Urban zones residence | (AP 1) Center: 39% (32) | (AP 2) South: 27.4% (99) | (AP 3) North: 39.5% (81) | (AP 4) West 1: 18.2% (8) | (AP 5) West 2: 31% (18) | 0.006 |
| Live in low-income communities | Yes: 28.7% (117) | No: 35.6% (120) | 0.046 | |||
| Live near a business establishments | Yes: 35.7% (153) | No: 26.5% (85) | 0.007 | |||
| Worked during the pregnancy | Yes: 34.8% (146) | No: 27.9% (91) | 0.046 | |||
| Fish consumption per week | Does not consume: 27.7% (148) | Consume once a week or more: 41.7% (90) | <0.000 | |||
[i] *p-value: p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test.
[ii] **No statistically significant association.
[iii] 1Higher concentration is given by values greater than, or equal to, the median of detectable values.
Table 4
Socio and housing characteristics during pregnancy of PIPA cohort participants by city zone. PIPA Cohort Project, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| SOCIO-ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS | CENTER | SOUTH ZONE | NORTH ZONE | WEST 1 | WEST 2 | P-VALUE | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | ||
| Personal characteristics | |||||||||||
| Maternal age | |||||||||||
| 16–29 years | 61 | 61.6 | 226 | 56.5 | 109 | 48 | 24 | 51.1 | 24 | 39.3 | 0.019 |
| >29 years | 38 | 38.4 | 174 | 43.5 | 118 | 52 | 23 | 48.9 | 37 | 60.7 | |
| Schooling | |||||||||||
| Up to 12 years | 33 | 33.3 | 149 | 36.6 | 53 | 23.2 | 15 | 31.3 | 11 | 17.7 | 0.001 |
| >12 years | 66 | 66.7 | 258 | 63.4 | 175 | 76.8 | 33 | 68.8 | 51 | 82.3 | |
| Current smoking during pregnancy (pregnant and family) | |||||||||||
| No | 68 | 68.7 | 283 | 69.5 | 166 | 72.8 | 35 | 72.9 | 45 | 72.6 | 0.883 |
| Yes | 31 | 31.3 | 124 | 30.5 | 62 | 27.2 | 13 | 27.1 | 17 | 27.4 | |
| Work during pregnancy | |||||||||||
| No | 47 | 47.5 | 175 | 43.4 | 103 | 45.4 | 14 | 29.2 | 26 | 42.6 | 0.288 |
| Yes | 52 | 52.5 | 228 | 56.6 | 124 | 54.6 | 34 | 70.8 | 35 | 57.4 | |
| Race | |||||||||||
| White | 26 | 26.3 | 106 | 26 | 52 | 22.8 | 18 | 37.5 | 16 | 25.8 | 0.340 |
| Non-White | 73 | 73.7 | 301 | 74 | 176 | 77.2 | 30 | 62.5 | 46 | 74.2 | |
| Per capita income | |||||||||||
| ≤Median | 41 | 41.4 | 177 | 43.5 | 101 | 44.3 | 13 | 27.1 | 22 | 35.5 | 0.175 |
| >Median | 58 | 58.6 | 230 | 56.5 | 127 | 55.7 | 35 | 72.9 | 40 | 64.5 | |
| Fish consumption per week | |||||||||||
| Does not consume | 32 | 32.3 | 144 | 35.4 | 94 | 41.2 | 13 | 27.1 | 23 | 37.1 | 0.287 |
| Consume once a week or more | 67 | 67.7 | 263 | 64.6 | 134 | 58.8 | 35 | 72.9 | 39 | 62.9 | |
| Housing characteristics | |||||||||||
| Live in low-income communities | |||||||||||
| Yes | 54 | 54.5 | 279 | 69.6 | 99 | 43.4 | 17 | 35.4 | 12 | 19.7 | <0.000 |
| No | 45 | 45.5 | 122 | 30.4 | 129 | 56.6 | 31 | 64.6 | 49 | 80.3 | |
| Live near heavy-traffic streets | |||||||||||
| Yes | 47 | 47.5 | 145 | 36.1 | 130 | 57.5 | 20 | 41.7 | 32 | 52.5 | <0.000 |
| No | 52 | 52.5 | 257 | 63.9 | 96 | 42.5 | 28 | 58.3 | 29 | 47.5 | |
| Live near a business establishment | |||||||||||
| Yes | 62 | 62.6 | 187 | 45.9 | 151 | 66.2 | 31 | 64.6 | 48 | 77.4 | <0.000 |
| No | 37 | 37.4 | 220 | 54.1 | 77 | 33.8 | 17 | 35.4 | 14 | 22.6 | |
[i] p-value: p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test.
Table 5
Building density, population density, total green area index (IAGT) per inhabitant, and total green area percentage (PAGT). City of Rio de Janeiro (RJ) and planning urban zones. Brazil, 2024.
| PLANNING ZONE(1) | AREA (HA) | BUILT-UP AREA(M2)—2013 | INHABITANTS (HAB)—2010 | BUILDING DENSITY (M2/HA) | POPULATION DENSITY (HAB/HA) | IAGT (M2/HAB)(1) 2014 | PAGT (%)(2)2014 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total RJ | 93 179 | 396 166 938 | 6 265 942 | 4 252 | 67 | 117.5 | 61.1 |
| Center | 2 851 | 35 360 779 | 291 912 | 12 405 | 102 | 35.31 | 31 |
| South | 4582 | 69 672 848 | 1 009 013 | 15 207 | 220 | 66.09 | 69.3 |
| North | 19 094 | 114 686 049 | 2 400 148 | 6 006 | 126 | 22.97 | 27.2 |
| West 1 | 18 188 | 74 628 294 | 860 096 | 4 103 | 47 | 224.95 | 69.9 |
| West 2 | 48 464 | 101 818 968 | 1 704 773 | 2 101 | 35 | 240.43 | 68.8 |
[i] Ha: Hectare; m2: square meter; hab: inhabitants.
[ii] (1)Total Green Areas Index (IAGT): sum of areas of all vegetal formations divided by the total number of inhabitants in each city zone = the number of square meters of total green area per inhabitant per zone.
[iii] (2)Total Green Area Percentage (PAGT): percentage of total green area in each urban zone and in the city.
Figure 2
Health urban planning zones map of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2023.