Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Covid-19: Early Cases and Disease Spread Cover

Covid-19: Early Cases and Disease Spread

Open Access
|Sep 2022

References

  1. 1World Health Organization. WHO-convened global study of origins of SARS-CoV-2: China Part. Joint WHO-China study: 14 January – 10 February. March 30, 2021; 120.
  2. 2World Health Organization. Origin of SARS-CoV-2, 26 March 2020, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO license. WHO reference number: WHO/2019-nCoV/FAQ/Virus_origin/2020.1
  3. 3Koopmans M, Daszak P, Dedkov VG, et al. Origins of SARS-CoV-2: window is closing for key scientific studies. Nature. 2021; 596: 482485. Comment August 25, 2021. DOI: 10.1038/d41586-021-02263-6
  4. 4Bloom JD, Chan YA, Baric RS, et al. Investigate the origins of COVID-19. Science. 2021; 372: 694. DOI: 10.1126/science.abj0016
  5. 5Cohen J. With call for ‘raw data’ and lab audits, WHO chief pressures China on pandemic origin probe. July 17, 2021. https://www.science.org/news/2021/07/who-chief-sharpens-call-china-further-help-probe-origin-pandemic. DOI: 10.1126/science.abl4763
  6. 6WHO Scientific Advisory Group for the Origins of Novel Pathogens. (SAGO) Preliminary report. Geneva 2022; June 9, 2022. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/scientific-advisory-group-on-the-origins-of-novel-pathogens/sago-report-09062022.pdf.
  7. 7Horton R. Offline: The origin story. Lancet. 2021; 398: 2136. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02833-6
  8. 8Wolfe ND, Dunavan CP, Diamond J. Origins of major human infectious diseases. Nature. 2007; 447: 27983. DOI: 10.1038/nature05775
  9. 9Ye ZW, Yuan S, Yuen KS, Fung SY, Chan CP, Jin DY. Zoonotic origins of human coronaviruses. Int J Biol Sci. 2020; 16: 16861697. DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.45472
  10. 10Cunningham AA, Daszak P, Wood JLN. One Health, emerging infectious diseases and wildlife: two decades of progress? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2017; 372: 20160167. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0167
  11. 11Giesecke J. Primary and index cases. Lancet. 2014; 384: 2024. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62331-X
  12. 12Reis J, Buguet A, Román GC, Spencer PS. The COVID-19 pandemic, an environmental neurology perspective. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2022; 178(6): 499511. DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2022.02.455
  13. 13Scarpetta S, Pearson M, Colombo F, et al. testing for COVID-19: How to best use the various tests? OECD Tackling coronavirus (COVID-19): Contributing to a global effort; 2020. http://www.oecd.org/termsandconditions.
  14. 14Ladner JT, Henson SN, Boyle AS, et al. Epitope-resolved profiling of the SARS-CoV-2 antibody response identifies cross-reactivity with endemic human coronaviruses. Cell Rep Med. 2021; 2: 100189. DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100189
  15. 15Mveang Nzoghe A, Essone PN, Leboueny M, et al. Evidence and implications of pre-existing humoral cross-reactive immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Immun Inflamm Dis. 2021; 9: 128133. DOI: 10.1002/iid3.367
  16. 16Moya A, Holmes E, González-Candelas F. The population genetics and evolutionary epidemiology of RNA viruses. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2004; 2: 279288. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro863
  17. 17Cosar B, Karagulleoglu ZY, Unal S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 mutations and viral variants. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2021; S1359–6101(21)00053–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2021.06.001
  18. 18Bukin YS, Bondaryuk AN, Kulakova NV, Balakhonov SV, Dzhioev YP, Zlobin VI. Phylogenetic reconstruction of the initial stages of the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in the Eurasian and American continents by analyzing genomic data. Virus Res. 2021; 305: 198551. DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198551
  19. 19Benvenuto D, Giovanetti M, Salemi M, et al. The global spread of 2019-nCoV: a molecular evolutionary analysis. Pathog Glob Health. 2020; 114: 6467. DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2020.1725339
  20. 20Roberts DL, Rossman JS, Jarić I. Dating first cases of COVID-19. PLoS Pathog. 2021; 17: e1009620. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009620
  21. 21van Dorp L, Acman M, Richard D, et al. Emergence of genomic diversity and recurrent mutations in SARS-CoV-2. Infect Genet Evol. 2020; 83: 104351. DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104351
  22. 22Pekar J, Worobey M, Moshiri N, Scheffler K, Wertheim JO. Timing the SARS-CoV-2 Index Case in Hubei Province. Science. 2021; 372: 412417. DOI: 10.1101/2020.11.20.392126
  23. 23Kumar S, Tao Q, Weaver S, et al. An evolutionary portrait of the progenitor SARS-CoV-2 and its dominant offshoots in COVID-19 pandemic. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2021; 38: 30463059. DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msab118
  24. 24Frutos R, Pliez O, Gavotte L, Devaux CA. There is no ‘origin’ to SARS-CoV-2. Environ. Res. 2021; 112173. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112173
  25. 25La Rosa G, Bonadonna L, Lucentini L, Kenmoe S, Suffredini E. Coronavirus in water environments: Occurrence, persistence and concentration methods – A scoping review. Water Res. 2020; 179: 115899. DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115899
  26. 26Chavarria-Miró G, Anfruns-Estrada E, Martínez-Velázquez A, et al. Time evolution of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in wastewater during the First Pandemic Wave of COVID-19 in the metropolitan area of Barcelona, Spain. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2021; 87: e0275020. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.02750-20
  27. 27Fongaro G, Stoco PH, Souza DSM, et al. The presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in human sewage in Santa Catarina, Brazil, November 2019. Sci Total Environ. 2021; 778: 146198. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146198
  28. 28Serra-Comte A, Gonzalez S, Arnaldos M, et al. Elimination of SARS-CoV-2 along wastewater and sludge treatment processes. Water Res. 2021; 202: 117435. DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117435
  29. 29Chung M, Bernheim A, Mei X, et al. CT Imaging features of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Radiology. 2020; 295: 202207. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2020200230
  30. 30Islam N, Salameh J-P, Leeflang MMG, et al. Thoracic imaging tests for the diagnosis of COVID-19. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020; 11(CD013639). DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD013639.pub3
  31. 31Xie X, Zhong Z, Zhao W, Zheng C, Wang F, Liu J. Chest CT for typical coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia: Relationship to negative RT-PCR testing. Radiology. 2020; 296: E41-E45. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2020200343
  32. 32Ai T, Yang Z, Hou H, et al. Correlation of chest CT and RT-PCR testing for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China: A Report of 1014 Cases. Radiology. 2020; 296(2): E32E40. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2020200642
  33. 33Revel MP, Boussouar S, de Margerie-Mellon C, et al. Study of thoracic CT in COVID-19: The STOIC Project. Radiology. 2021; 210384. DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2021210384
  34. 34Asadi-Pooya AA, Simani L. Central nervous system manifestations of COVID-19: A systematic review. J Neurol Sci. 2020; 413: 116832. DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2020.116832
  35. 35Román GC, Spencer PS, Reis J, et al. The neurology of COVID-19 revisited: A proposal from the Environmental Neurology Specialty Group of the World Federation of Neurology to implement international neurological registries. J Neurol Sci. 2020; 414: 116884. DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2020.116884
  36. 36Abobaker A, Raba AA, Alzwi A. Extrapulmonary and atypical clinical presentations of COVID-19. J Med Virol. 2020; 92: 24582464. DOI: 10.1002/jmv.26157
  37. 37Baj J, Karakuła-Juchnowicz H, Teresiński G, et al. COVID-19: Specific and non-specific clinical manifestations and symptoms: The current state of knowledge. J Clin Med. 2020; 9: 1753. DOI: 10.3390/jcm9061753
  38. 38Zheng KI, Feng G, Liu WY, Targher G, Byrne CD, Zheng MH. Extrapulmonary complications of COVID-19: A multisystem disease? J Med Virol. 2021; 93: 323335. DOI: 10.1002/jmv.26294
  39. 39Bernard Stoecklin S, Rolland P, Silue Y, et al. First cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in France: surveillance, investigations and control measures, January 2020. Euro Surveill. 2020; 25: 2000094. DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.6.2000094
  40. 40Lescure FX, Bouadma L, Nguyen D, et al. Clinical and virological data of the first cases of COVID-19 in Europe: a case series. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020; 20: 697706. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30200-0. Erratum in: Lancet Infect Dis. 2020 May 19; Erratum in: Lancet Infect Dis. 2020 Jun; 20(6): e116. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30283-8
  41. 41Gámbaro F, Behillil S, Baidaliuk A, et al. Introductions and early spread of SARS-CoV-2 in France, 24 January to 23 March 2020. Euro Surveill. 2020; 25: 2001200. DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.26.2001200
  42. 42Deslandes A, Berti V, Tandjaoui-Lambotte Y, et al. SARS-CoV-2 was already spreading in France in late December 2019. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. 2020; 55: 106006. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106006
  43. 43Gerbaud L, Guiguet-Auclair C, Breysse F, et al. Hospital and population-based evidence for COVID-19 early circulation in the east of France. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 17: 7175. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17197175
  44. 44Carrat F, Figoni J, Henny J, et al. Evidence of early circulation of SARS-CoV-2 in France: findings from the population-based ‘CONSTANCES’ cohort. Eur J Epidemiol. 2021; 36: 219222. DOI: 10.1007/s10654-020-00716-2
  45. 45Giovanetti M, Benvenuto D, Angeletti S, Ciccozzi M. The first two cases of 2019-nCoV in Italy: Where they come from? J Med Virol. 2020; 92: 518521. DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25699
  46. 46Amendola A, Bianchi S, Gori M, et al. Evidence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in an oropharyngeal swab specimen, Milan, Italy, Early December 2019. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021; 27: 648650. DOI: 10.3201/eid2702.204632
  47. 47Milani GP, Casazza G, Corsello A, et al. Early evidence of SARS-CoV-2 in Milan, Jan-Feb 2020. Ital J Pediatr. 2021; 47: 145. DOI: 10.1186/s13052-021-01095-4
  48. 48Percivalle E, Cambiè G, Cassaniti I, et al. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 specific neutralising antibodies in blood donors from the Lodi Red Zone in Lombardy, Italy, as at 06 April 2020. Euro Surveill. 2020; 25: 2001031. DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.24.2001031. Erratum in: Euro Surveill. 2022 Jan; 27(3).
  49. 49Valenti L, Pelusi S, Cherubini A, et al. Trends and risk factors of SARS-CoV-2 infection in asymptomatic blood donors. Transfusion. 2021; 19. DOI: 10.1111/trf.16693
  50. 50Capalbo C, Bertamino E, Zerbetto A, et al. No evidence of SARS-CoV-2 circulation in Rome (Italy) during the pre-pandemic period: Results of a retrospective surveillance. Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 17: 8461. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17228461
  51. 51Apolone G, Montomoli E, Manenti A, et al. Unexpected detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in the prepandemic period in Italy. Tumori. 2020; 300891620974755. DOI: 10.1177/0300891620974755
  52. 52La Rosa G, Mancini P, Bonanno Ferraro G, et al. SARS-CoV-2 has been circulating in northern Italy since December 2019: evidence from environmental monitoring. Sci Total Environ. 2021; 750: 141711. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141711
  53. 53Alteri C, Cento V, Piralla A, et al. Genomic epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 reveals multiple lineages and early spread of SARS-CoV-2 infections in Lombardy, Italy. Nature communications. 2021; 12: 434. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20688-x
  54. 54The COVID-19 Investigation Team. Clinical and virologic characteristics of the first 12 patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the United States. Nat Med. 2020; 26: 861868. DOI: 10.1038/s41591-020-0877-5
  55. 55Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, et al. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2020; 382: 929936. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001191
  56. 56Jorden MA, Rudman SL, Villarino E, et al. Evidence for limited early spread of COVID-19 within the United States, January–February 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020; 69: 680684. DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6922e1
  57. 57Basavaraju SV, Patton ME, Grimm K, et al. Serologic testing of US blood donations to identify Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)–reactive antibodies: December 2019–January 2020. Clin Infect Dis. 2020; ciaa1785. DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1785
  58. 58Gonzalez-Reiche AS, Hernandez MM, Sullivan MJ, et al. Introductions and early spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the New York City area. Science. 2020; 369: 297301. DOI: 10.1126/science.abc1917
  59. 59Hernandez MM, Gonzalez-Reiche AS, Alshammary H, et al. Molecular evidence of SARS-CoV-2 in New York before the first pandemic wave. Nat Commun. 2021; 12: 3463. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23688-7
  60. 60Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2020; 382: 11991207. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001316
  61. 61Zhang Q, Zhang H, Gaoa J, et al. A serological survey of SARS-CoV-2 in cat in Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020; 9: 20132019. DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2020.1817796
  62. 62Okanyene NE, Rader B, Barnoon YL, Goodwin L, Brownstein JS. Analysis of hospital traffic and search engine data in Wuhan China indicates early disease activity in the Fall of 2019; 2020. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:42669767.
  63. 63Song Y, Liu P, Shi XL, et al. SARS-CoV-2 induced diarrhea as onset symptom in patient with COVID-19. Gut. 2020; 69: 11431144. DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-320891
  64. 64Devaux CA, Lagier JC, Raoult D. New insights into the physiopathology of COVID-19: SARS-CoV-2-associated gastrointestinal illness. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021; 8: 640073. DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.640073
  65. 65Wu Z, Jin Q, Wu G, et al. SARS-CoV-2’s origin should be investigated worldwide for pandemic prevention. Lancet. 2021; 398: 12991303. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02020-1
  66. 66Wolfe ND, Panosian Dunavan C, Diamond J. Origins of major human infectious diseases. Nature. 2007; 447: 279283. DOI: 10.1038/nature05775
  67. 67Cui J, Li F, Shi Z-L. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nature Rev. Microbiol. 2019; 17: 181192. DOI: 10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9
  68. 68Jo WK, Ferreira de Oliveira-Filho E, Rasche A, Greenwood A, Osterrieder K, Drexler JF. Potential zoonotic sources of SARS-CoV-2 infections. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2020; 68: 18241834. DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13872
  69. 69Orent W. Why I Still Believe COVID-19 Could Not Have Originated in a Lab. Medscape: Opinion; October 28, 2021.
  70. 70Ducousso J, Duval RE, La Fou A. La grippe aviaire: retour sur l’épizootie française (2015–2017). Rev Méd Vét. 2018; 02/03.
  71. 71Peiris JSM, Guan Y, Yuen KY. Severe acute respiratory syndrome. Nat Med. December 2004; 10(12 Suppl): S8897. DOI: 10.1038/nm1143
  72. 72Choi B, Choudhary MC, Regan J, et al. Persistence and evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in an immunocompromised host. N Engl J Med. 2020; 383: 22912293. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMc2031364
  73. 73Bazant MZ, Bush JWM. A guideline to limit indoor airborne transmission of COVID-19. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2021; 118(17): e2018995118. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2018995118
  74. 74Oh DY, Böttcher S, Kröger S, von Kleist M. SARS-CoV-2-Übertragungswege und Implikationen für den Selbst- und Fremdschutz [SARS-CoV-2 transmission routes and implications for self- and non-self-protection]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz. 2021; 64: 10501057. German. DOI: 10.1007/s00103-021-03389-8
  75. 75Robles-Romero JM, Conde-Guillén G, Safont-Montes JC, García-Padilla FM, Romero-Martín M. Behaviour of aerosols and their role in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2; a scoping review. Rev Med Virol. 2022; 32(3): e2297. DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2297
  76. 76Han S, Liu X. Can imported cold food cause COVID-19 recurrent outbreaks? A review. Environ Chem Lett. 2022; 20: 119129. DOI: 10.1007/s10311-021-01312-w
  77. 77Baker CA, Gibson KE. Persistence of SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces and relevance to the food industry. Curr Opin Food Sci. 2022; 47: 100875. DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100875
  78. 78Herazo MS, Nani G, Zurita F, et al. A review of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in Wastewater: Transmission Risks in Mexico. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022; 19(14): 8354. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19148354
  79. 79Oates LE, Dai L, Sudmant A, Gouldson A. Building climate resilience and Water Security in Cities: Lessons from the sponge city of Wuhan, China. London and Washington, DC: Coalition for Urban Transitions; 2020.
  80. 80Frutos R, Gavotte L, Devaux CA. Understanding the origin of COVID-19 requires to change the paradigm on zoonotic emergence from the spillover model to the viral circulation model. Infect Genet Evol. 2021; 95: 104812. DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104812
  81. 81Holmes EC, Goldstein SA, Rasmussen AL, et al. The origins of SARS-CoV-2: A critical review. Cell. 2021; 184: 48484856. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.08.017
  82. 82Platto S, Wang Y, Zhou J, Carafoli E. History of the COVID-19 pandemic: Origin, explosion, worldwide spreading. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2021; 538: 1423. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.10.087
  83. 83Winter AE. The impact of the World Military Games on the COVID-19 pandemic. Ir J Med Sci. 2021; 190: 16531654. DOI: 10.1007/s11845-020-02484-0
  84. 84Bostickson B, Demaneuf G, Ghannam Y. The October surprise in Wuhan. Drastic; October 2021. www.researchgate.net/publication/355373689. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.30910.00328
  85. 85Caimmi PP, Capponi A, Leigheb F, et al. The hard lessons learned by the COVID-19 epidemic in Italy: Rethinking the role of the National Health Care Service? J Epidemiol Glob Health. 2021; 11: 266270. DOI: 10.2991/jegh.k.210420.001
  86. 86Pinotti F, Di Domenico L, Ortega E, et al. Tracing and analysis of 288 early SARS-CoV-2 infections outside China: A modeling study. PLoS medicine. 2020; 17(7): e1003193. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003193
  87. 87Bontempi E. Commercial exchanges instead of air pollution as possible origin of COVID-19 initial diffusion phase in Italy: More efforts are necessary to address interdisciplinary research. Environ Res. 2020; 188: 109775. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109775
  88. 88Bontempi E, Coccia M, Vergalli S, Zanoletti A. Can commercial trade represent the main indicator of the COVID-19 diffusion due to human-to-human interactions? A comparative analysis between Italy, France, and Spain. Environ Res. 2021; 201: 111529. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111529
  89. 89Bontempi E, Coccia M. International trade as critical parameter of COVID-19 spread that outclasses demographic, economic, environmental, and pollution factors. Environ Res. 2021; 201: 111514. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111514
  90. 90Bogoch II, Watts W, Thomas-Bachli A, Huber C, Kraemer MUG, Khan K. Potential for global spread of a novel coronavirus from China. J. Travel Med. 2020; 27(2): taaa011. DOI: 10.1093/jtm/taaa011
  91. 91Wilson ME, Chen LH. Travelers give wings to novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). J. Travel Med. 2020; 27(2): taaa 015. DOI: 10.1093/jtm/taaa015
  92. 92Worobey M, Levy JI, Malpica Serrano LM, et al. The Huanan market was the epicenter of SARS-CoV-2 emergence. Zenodo; 2022. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6299116
  93. 93Pekar JE, Magee A, Parker E, et al. SARS-CoV-2 emergence very likely resulted from at least two zoonotic events. Zenodo; 2022. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6291628
  94. 94Worobey M, Levy JI, Malpica Serrano L, et al. The Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in Wuhan was the early epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic. Science. 2022; 377(6609): 951959. DOI: 10.1126/science.abp8715
  95. 95Pekar JE, Magee A, Parker E, et al. The molecular epidemiology of multiple zoonotic origins of SARS-CoV-2. Science. 2022; 377(6609): 960966. DOI: 10.1126/science.abp8337
  96. 96Gao G, Liu W, Liu P, et al. Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in the environment and animal samples of the Huanan Seafood Market. Research Square; 2022. DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1370392/v1
  97. 97Clausner M. Le point sur la crise de la Covid-19. Bulletin de l’Ordre des médecins. 2022; 78: 89. www.conseil-national.medecin.fr/publications/bulletins-lordre-medecins/medecins-ndeg78.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/aogh.3776 | Journal eISSN: 2214-9996
Language: English
Submitted on: Mar 11, 2022
Accepted on: Aug 31, 2022
Published on: Sep 29, 2022
Published by: Ubiquity Press
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year

© 2022 Jacques Reis, Alain Le Faou, Alain Buguet, Guy Sandner, Peter Spencer, published by Ubiquity Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.