Table 1.
Comparisons of Sample Characteristics for the 448 Participants.
| Variable | English M (SD) or # (%) (n=136) | Russian M (SD) or # (%) (n=58) | Spanish M (SD) or # (%) (n=104) | Urdu M (SD) or # (%) (n=42) | Uzbek M (SD) or # (%) (n=46) | Other M (SD) or # (%) (n=62) | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) [mean] | 29.7 (5.76) | 32.4 (5.25) | 30.1 (6.69) | 29.6 (4.66) | 29.3 (4.88) | 30.0 (4.82) | 0.051 |
| Race/ethnicity | <0.001 | ||||||
| White | 30 (22.2) | 25 (44.6) | 1 (1.0) | 0 (0.0) | 11 (25.6) | 36 (60.0) | |
| African-American | 38 (28.1) | 3 (5.4) | 1 (1.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (6.7) | |
| Hispanic | 32 (23.7) | 1 (1.8) | 81 (81.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (1.7) | |
| Asian | 25 (18.5) | 11 (19.6) | 0 (0.0) | 37 (88.1) | 25 (58.1) | 13 (21.7) | |
| Other | 10 (7.4) | 16 (28.6) | 16 (16.2) | 5 (11.9) | 7 (16.3) | 6 (10.0) | |
| Born in USA (yes) | 79 (59.4) | 5 (8.6) | 4 (3.9) | 1 (2.4) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (4.8) | <0.001 |
| Years lived in USA [mean] | 20.9 (11.19) | 7.2 (7.16) | 9.7 (7.34) | 12.5 (8.00) | 4.7 (3.45) | 6.0 (7.44) | <0.001 |
| Education | <0.001 | ||||||
| Elementary | 2 (1.5) | 0 (0.0) | 32 (33.3) | 2 (4.9) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (3.3) | |
| Some HS | 19 (14.5) | 10 (17.5) | 32 (33.3) | 6 (14.6) | 10 (22.2) | 6 (9.8) | |
| Completed HS | 38 (19.0) | 9 (15.8) | 26 (27.1) | 11 (26.8) | 16 (35.6) | 12 (19.7) | |
| Associate | 27 (20.6) | 7 (12.3) | 2 (2.1) | 5 (12.2) | 14 (31.1) | 11 (18.0) | |
| Bachelor | 24 (18.3) | 21 (36.8) | 2 (2.1) | 13 (31.7) | 5 (11.1) | 20 (32.8) | |
| Master/Doctoral | 21 (16.0) | 10 (17.5) | 2 (2.1) | 4 (9.8) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (16.4) | |
| Gravidity [mean] | 2.7 (1.69) | 3.1 (3.11) | 2.9 (1.80) | 2.5 (1.45) | 3.4 (1.74) | 2.1 (1.35) | 0.001 |
| Parity [mean] | 2.1 (1.51) | 2.0 (0.97) | 2.3 (1.48) | 2.1 (1.30) | 2.9 (1.20) | 1.7 (1.24) | <0.001 |
| Number miscarriages/abortions [mean] | 0.7 (1.02) | 0.8 (1.16) | 0.5 (0.73) | 0.5 (0.71) | 0.8 (1.14) | 0.4 (0.64) | 0.27 |
| Recently had baby (yes) | 67 (49.6) | 32 (57.1) | 48 (46.6) | 17 (41.5) | 36 (78.3) | 43 (69.4) | <0.001 |
| Breastfed previous child (yes) | 69 (53.5) | 36 (69.2) | 67 (65.0) | 21 (53.8) | 40 (90.9) | 25 (43.9) | <0.001 |
| Close relative breastfed child (yes) | 108 (81.2) | 45 (83.3) | 71 (70.3) | 31 (75.6) | 28 (60.9) | 47 (77.0) | 0.050 |
[i] Note: M=mean, SD=standard deviation. USA=United States of America, HS=high school. Sample size can slightly vary due to omissions from participants. Gravidity and number miscarriages/abortions had skewed distributions and were logarithmic transformed for analyses for the reporting of the p-value. The mean and standard deviation values shown are for non-transformed values. Race/ethnicity and education had certain expected cell sizes <5 but the Fisher's exact test could not be performed and instead were analyzed with the Pearson chi-square test.
Table 2.
Univariate Comparisons for Outcomes.
| Variable | English M (SD) (n=136) | Russian M (SD) (n=58) | Spanish M (SD) (n=104) | Urdu M (SD) (n=42) | Uzbek M (SD) (n=46) | Other M (SD) (n=62) | p-value | Post-hoc |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attitudes | 23.2 (6.37) | 25.3 (4.82) | 25.6 (4.33) | 26.1 (3.10) | 27.0 (4.07) | 25.2 (5.24) | 0.001 | Russian>English (p=0.02) |
| Spanish>English (p=0.003) | ||||||||
| Urdu>English (p=0.01) | ||||||||
| Uzbek>English (p<0.001) | ||||||||
| Other>English (p=0.02) | ||||||||
| Subjective norms | 16.6 (4.61) | 17.0 (4.77) | 19.0 (3.39) | 18.6 (3.03) | 17.6 (4.52) | 18.3 (2.92) | <0.001 | Spanish>English (p<0.001) |
| Urdu>English (p=0.01) | ||||||||
| Other>English (p=0.01) | ||||||||
| Spanish>Russian (p=0.003) | ||||||||
| Behavioral control | 17.9 (3.14) | 17.9 (3.54) | 19.0 (2.67) | 18.2 (3.56) | 19.7 (2.59) | 18.0 (3.35) | 0.01 | Spanish>English (p=0.01) |
| Uzbek>English (p=0.002) | ||||||||
| Spanish>Russian (p=0.046) | ||||||||
| Uzbek>Russian (p=0.01) | ||||||||
| Uzbek>Urdu (p=0.04) | ||||||||
| Uzbek>Other (p=0.01) | ||||||||
| Intentions | 17.9 (4.99) | 18.8 (4.39) | 19.3 (3.41) | 18.6 (4.07) | 17.5 (5.44) | 19.1 (3.43) | 0.11 | |
| IIFAS | 61.3 (8.25) | 60.0 (6.45) | 59.8 (5.74) | 60.1 (6.23) | 58.8 (6.61) | 61.5 (7.26) | 0.17 | |
| Knowledge correct | 6.6 (3.04) | 6.1 (2.96) | 6.1 (2.17) | 7.0 (2.64) | 6.5 (2.48) | 6.1 (2.74) | 0.31 | |
| Knowledge unsure | 4.4 (3.17) | 4.8 (3.10) | 4.2 (2.76) | 3.8 (3.01) | 3.6 (2.44) | 4.8 (2.55) | 0.16 |
[i] Note: M=mean, SD=standard deviation, IIFAS=Iowa Infant Feeding and Attitudes Scale. Sample size can slightly vary due to omissions from participants.
Table 3.
Multivariate Linear Regression Analyses for Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Behavioral Control.
| Variable | Attitudes B (SE) | p-value | Subjective Norms B (SE) | p-value | Behavioral Control B (SE) | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Language | ||||||
| English | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| Russian | 2.24 (1.09) | 0.04 | 0.98 (0.77) | 0.21 | −0.87 (0.63) | 0.17 |
| Spanish | 2.19 (1.27) | 0.09 | 1.34 (0.86) | 0.12 | −0.08 (0.70) | 0.91 |
| Urdu | 2.90 (1.45) | 0.046 | 1.21 (0.92) | 0.19 | 0.14 (0.77) | 0.86 |
| Uzbek | 4.21 (1.35) | 0.002 | 0.88 (0.92) | 0.34 | 0.22 (0.75) | 0.77 |
| Other | 1.49 (1.07) | 0.16 | 1.24 (0.75) | 0.10 | −1.08 (0.61) | 0.08 |
| Age (years) | 0.07 (0.07) | 0.33 | −0.08 (0.04) | 0.07 | 0.02 (0.04) | 0.61 |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||
| White | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| African-American | 0.17 (1.16) | 0.32 | 3.09 (0.83) | <0.001 | 1.32 (0.67) | 0.05 |
| Hispanic | −0.55 (1.20) | 0.65 | 1.06 (0.83) | 0.20 | 0.05 (0.68) | 0.94 |
| Asian | 0.17 (0.97) | 0.86 | 0.87 (0.67) | 0.19 | −0.15 (0.54) | 0.79 |
| Other | 0.25 (1.05) | 0.81 | 1.24 (0.75) | 0.81 | 0.05 (0.60) | 0.93 |
| Born in USA (yes) | −1.47 (1.30) | 0.26 | −0.89 (0.87) | 0.31 | −1.22 (0.71) | 0.09 |
| Years lived in USA | 0.03 (0.05) | 0.55 | −0.04 (0.03) | 0.19 | −0.05 (0.03) | 0.09 |
| Education | ||||||
| Elementary | 1.16 (1.62) | 0.48 | 0.75 (1.04) | 0.47 | 1.08 (0.86) | 0.21 |
| Some HS | −2.03 (1.21) | 0.10 | −0.09 (0.81) | 0.91 | 0.65 (0.67) | 0.33 |
| Completed HS | −0.92 (1.14) | 0.42 | −0.45 (0.78) | 0.57 | 0.02 (0.64) | 0.98 |
| Associate | −1.84 (1.17) | 0.12 | −0.07 (0.82) | 0.93 | 0.76 (0.67) | 0.26 |
| Bachelor | −1.51 (1.08) | 0.16 | −0.45 (0.75) | 0.55 | −0.28 (0.62) | 0.65 |
| Masters/Doctoral | Reference | Reference | ||||
| Gravidity | −6.47 (2.71) | 0.02 | −5.69 (1.84) | 0.002 | −1.82 (1.51) | 0.23 |
| Parity | 0.30 (0.37) | 0.42 | 0.64 (0.26) | 0.01 | 0.17 (0.21) | 0.42 |
| Recently had baby (yes) | 0.88 (0.62) | 0.16 | −0.49 (0.42) | 0.24 | 0.19 (0.35) | 0.58 |
| Breastfed previous child (yes) | 0.78 (0.73) | 0.29 | 0.92 (0.49) | 0.06 | 1.09 (0.40) | 0.01 |
| Close relative breastfed child (yes) | 1.55 (0.72) | 0.03 | 2.24 (0.48) | <0.001 | 1.03 (0.39) | 0.01 |
| Constant | 23.07 (2.34) | <0.001 | 19.23 (1.59) | <0.001 | 17.58 (1.31) | <0.001 |
[i] Note: B=unstandardized beta, SE=standard error. Variance inflation factor values indicated no multicollinearity concerns. Adjusted R square: Attitudes: 0.14, Subjective norms: 0.09, Behavioral control: 0.10.