Studies indicating the dietary consumption of essential fatty acids along with supplementation strategy during pregnancy and their observed influence on newborn birth weight_
| Stage of pregnancy | Place/country of the study | Existing comorbidities (Y/N) | Number of women enrolled | Age of the participant (years) | Dietary sources of EFA | Type of supplement | Dosage of supplement | Supplementation strategy | Association with gestational length (Y/N) | Infant birth weight (Y/N) | Other parameters | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 12 to 28 weeks of gestation | Korea | NA | 1407 | 30 | Saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated FA | Dietary supplement | NA | NA | No. | Yes, Increase in birth weight | Length of the newborn | 29 |
| <16 weeks) | Metro Health Medical Center/Case Western Reserve University, Ohio | Obesity/increased 3:n6 ratio | 72 | NA | Dietary sources of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA and saturated fatty acids | Omega-3, DHA, EPA | Two capsules twice a day | Oral supplementation of 800 mg containing docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and 1200 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid(EPA) altogether making around 2000 mg of n-3 PUFA until delivery | Yes, increased gestational length with supplementation | Yes, increased birth weight with supplementation | Fetal fat-free mass and fetal growth | 25 |
| ≥34 completed weeks of gestation | Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia | NA | 224 | 30–35 | Total n–3 PUFA and the individual PUFAs, ALA, EPA, DHA, and LA. | Fish oil supplementation | NA | NA | No | ALA-yes | NA | 28 |
| 16- and 22-weeks’ gestation | 13 academic medical clinics in the United States | Obesity and lean body weight | 852 | NA | Fish intake | Oral capsule of DHA and n3 fatty acids | placebo group with (inert mineral oil) or 2 g of n3 FA and intervention group with a daily consumption consisting a combination of 800 mg of docosohexaenoic acid with 1200 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) | Daily supplementation throughput the pregnancy | Yes, shorter gestational length | Yes, increased birth weight | Maternal plasma n6: n3 FA ratio and fetal growth | 27 |
| >15 weeks of gestation | Munich area, Germany | No | 208 | 18–43 | Reduced ratio of n−6 to n−3 LCPUFAs from 7:1 and moderate intake of arachidonic acid, abundant in meat products and eggs | Fish-oil supplement | Marinol D-40; Lipid Nutrition containing 1200 mg n−3 LCPUFAs (1020 mg DHA and 180 mg EPA) | Daily supplementation throughout pregnancy | Yes, showed prolonged gestational length but no significant difference with the control group (without supplementation and reduce intake only nutritional counselling being done) | Yes, showed increased birth weight but no significant difference with the control group | Head circumference and fat distribution | 26 |
| 16 to 20 weeks of gestation | Colorado | No, healthy subjects | 871 | >18 | Education arm with increased intake with 300 mg of docosahexaenoic acid from fish and other dietary sources | Algal derived docosahexaenoic acid (or) olive oil placebo | 300 to 600 mg of algal derived docosahexaenoic acid (or) olive oil placebo | DHA was provided in the form of supplement bars containing docosahexaenoic acid CsOS oil with energy of 300kcal. Gel capsules containing olive oil were given to those who refused to consume nutrient bars, and upplementation was initiated at week 20 of gestation and continued until delivery | Yes, showed a prolonged gestational length of 4 days. | Yes, showed increased birth weight | Maternal DHA levels, fetal DHA status and cognitive development | 24 |
Studies indicating the consumption of maternal dietary essential fatty acid and the observed infant birth and gestational duration
| Stage of pregnancy | Existing comorbiditis | Place/country of the study | Number of women enrolled | Age of the participant (years) | Dietary sources of EFA | Association with gestational length (Y/N) | Infant birth weight (Y/N) | Other parameters | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First trimester | None reported | Bangalore, India | 1838 | 17–40 | Total fats, short-chain fatty acids, ALA, LC n-3 PUFA intake (fish, fats/oil, eggs, cereals, nuts, milk, and vegetables) | NA | Mixed results (inverted U shaped) | Gestational age | 14 |
| 16th–20th week of gestation (singleton) | None reported | Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Bharati hospital Pune, India | 111 | NA | Omega-3 and 6 fatty acids, SFA, MUFA, AA, DHA | NA | DHA-increased birth weight | NA | 16 |
| Third trimester | None reported | Torbat-e Jam, Mashhad, Iran | 453 | 18–40 | Total fat intake | NA | Yes, positively associated | Head circumference and length of the infant | 13 |
| 33–41 weeks | Diabetes, hypertension, chronic diseases | Isfahan, Iran. | 225 | NA | Foods high in protein, such as bread and cereals, fruits, vegetables, shrimp, and fish | Yes, positively associated | Yes, positively associated | NA | 11 |
| 16th–20th week of gestation | No medical or obstetrical complications. | Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Bharati hospital Pune, India | NA | NA | Food sources rich in omega-3 fatty acids were noted using food frequency questionnaire | No. | DHA-positively associated with birth weight | Maternal total erythrocyte omega-6 fatty acid and infant length | 15 |
| 8–28 weeks | None reported | United Kingdom | 1289 | 18–45 | SFA, MUFA, and PUFA | Yes, increased gestational length up to 40 weeks | Yes, negatively associated with lower birth weight | Birth centile | 18 |
| <17 wk of gestation | None reported | Turku and neighboring areas in south-west Finland | 256 | NA | Dietary counselling | Yes, increased gestational length up to 40 weeks | Yes, positively associated | NA | 17 |
| >32 week of gestation (data unpublished) | None reported | NA | 282 | 19–40 | Tempeh, tofu, and the water extracts of some legumes like mung bean and soybean | Yes, low intake of ALA with lower gestational weight, DHA, and EPA were not associated | Yes, low intake of ALA with lower birth weight and DHA and EPA has not been associated | NA | 12 |
Studies indicating the consumption of essential fatty acid supplementation during pregnancy and the observed birth weight of infants_
| Stage of pregnancy | Place/country of the study | Existing comorbidities | Number of women enrolled | Age of the participant | Type of supplement | Dosage of supplement | Supplementation strategy | Association with gestational length (Y/N) | Infant birth weight (Y/N) | Other parameters | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ≤ 20 weeks | India | None reported. | 1200 | 18–35 | Algal DHA supplement | 635 mg soft gel capsules | Started between 12 and 18 weeks of pregnancy, with a median value of 15 weeks | No, as a secondary outcome | No | Length and head circumference at the time of birth | 23 |
| 8–20 weeks of gestation | Kansas city, USA | Diabetes mellitus, high blood pressure, and other chronic diseases. | 350 | 16–36 | Marine algae-oil source of DHA | Three capsules/day | In the placebo group, three capsules containing 50/50 soybean and maize oil containing 200 mg of DHA were given | Yes, gestational length was found to be high | Yes, infant birth weight was the high | Birth length, head circumference, and total fatty acid in blood | 20 |
| First trimester – singleton pregnancy | India | N None reported | 200 | 25 years | Omega-3 fatty acid capsules | MEGA3 contains eicosapentatonic acid (EPA) 180mg + docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 120mg/day | (MEGA3) Supplementation was started in the first trimester at the first visit and iron and calcium supplement to other group followed till 28 weeks | No | Yes, increasing birth weight | Morbidity rate | 19 |
| 12 and before 20 weeks gestation | Kansas City metropolitan area | NA | NA | 20–30 | DHA and corn and soybean mixture | 600 mg of DHA per day or a placebo (corn and soybean combination) | Intake of supplementation after 12 weeks of pregnancy till the end of gestation period | NA | Yes, decreased birth weight | Maternal age | 21 |
| 16–20 of pregnancy | Tabriz, Iran | NO | 150 | 18 to 35 | Fish oil capsule and placebo | Daily supplementation of fish oil capsules containing 1000 mg and placebo intervention of capsules with 1000 mg of liquid paraffin | One capsule was taken each day with a total of 140 capsules taken till the end of intervention | NA | Yes, increasing birth weight but is not statistically significant | Head circumference and length of the infant | 22 |
| 24 wks of pregnancy | From prospective Danish study | Diseased conditions | 736 | NA | Fish oil capsule and olive oil | 1g of fish oil capsule containing (55% of EPA and 37% DHA and other intervention group with 1 g of olive oil containing (72% of oleic acid and 12% omega-6 linoleic acid) | Daily supplementation of one capsule per starting from 22 week till delivery | Yes, prolongation of gestational length and age | Yes, increase in birth weight | NA | 9 |
| 20–36 weeks of gestation | Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of IIMCT-Railway Hospital Rawalpindi | No | 500 | 32 | Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation | NA | Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation was given to group A participants from a gestational period and participants in the Group B have not received any such treatment | Yes | Yes | Fetal DHA stores | 8 |