References
-
Asher
, W., Edson, J., McGillis, W., Wanninkhof, R., Ho, D. T.et al. 2002.Fractional area whitecap coverage and air-sea gas transfer velocities measured during GasEx-98. In: Gas Transfer at Water Surfaces, AGU Geophysical Monograph 127 (eds M. A. Donelan, W. M. Drennan, E. S. Saltzman, and R. Wanninkhof). American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 199– 204 -
Bortkovskii
, R. S.and Novak, V. A. 1993. Statistical dependencies of sea state characteristics on water temperature and wind-wave age. J. Marine Sysl, 161– 169. -
Caires
, S.and Sterl, A. 2005.A new non-parametric method to correct model data: application to significant wave height from the ERA-40 reanalysis. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol in press. -
Cardone
, V. J. 1969. Specification of the Wind Field Distribution in the Marine Boundary Layer for Wave Forecasting. Report TR 69-1, Geo-physical Science Lab , New York University, New York. -
Carter
, D. J. T. 1982. Prediction of wave height and period for a constant wind velocity using the JONSWAP results. Ocean Eng. 9, 17– 33. -
Csanady
, G. T. 1990. The role of breaking wavelets in air-sea gas transfer. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 749– 759. -
Donelan
, M. A. 1977.A simple numerical model for wave and wind stress prediction. National Water Research Institute, Burlington, Ontario, 28pp. -
Felizardo
, F. C., Melville, W. K. 1995. Correlations between ambient noise and the ocean surface wave field. J. Phys. Oceanogr, 513– 532. -
Gommenginger
, C. P., Srokosz, M. A., Challenor, P. G., and Cotton, P. D. 2003. Measuring ocean wave period with satellite altimeters: a simple empirical model. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30, 2150. -
Graham
, A., Woolf, D. K.and Hall, A. J. 2004. Aeration due to breaking waves. Part I: Bubble populations. J. Phys. Oceanogr, 989– 1007. -
Hanson
, J. L.and Phillips, O. M. 1999. Wind sea growth and dissipation in the open ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr, 1633– 1648. -
Hasselmann
, K. 1974. On the spectral dissipation of ocean waves due to whitecapping. Bound.-Lay. Meteorol, 107– 127. -
Jähne
, B., Munnich, K. O., Bosinger, R., Dutzi, A., Huber, W.et al. 1987. On the parameters influencing air-water gas exchange. J. Geophys. Res. 92, 1937– 1949. -
Kitaigorodskii
, S. 1984. On the fluid dynamical theory of turbulent gas transfer across an air-sea interface in the presence of breaking wind waves. J. Phys. Oceanogr, 960– 972. -
Kraan
, C., Oost, W. A.and Janssen, P. A. E. M. 1996. Wave energy dissipation by whitecaps. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 13, 262– 267. -
Lamarre
, E.and Melville, W. K. 1991. Air entrainment and dissipation in breaking waves. Nature, 469– 472. -
Large
, W. S.and Pond, S. 1981. Open ocean momentum flux mea-surements in moderate to strong winds. J. Phys. Oceanogr, 324– 336. -
Liss
, P. S.and Merlivat, L. 1986. Air-sea gas exchange rates: introduction and synthesis . In: The Role of Air-Sea Exchange in Geochemical Cycling (eds P. Buat-Menard). Reidel, Washington, 113– 129. -
McGillis
, W. R., Edson, J. B., Hare, J. E.and Fairall, C. W. 2001. Direct covariance air-sea CO2 fluxes. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 16. -
Monahan
, E. C. 2002. Oceanic whitecaps: sea surface features detectable via satellite that are indicators of the magnitude of the air-sea gas transfer coefficient. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. ( Earth Planet. Sc i.) 111, 315– 319. -
Monahan
, E. C.and Lu, M. 1990. Acoustically relevant bubble assem-blages and their dependence on meteorological parameters. IEEE J. Oceanic Eng. 15, 340– 349. -
Monahan
, E. C.and Monahan, C. F. 1986. The influence of fetch on whitecap coverage as deduced from the Alte-Weser Light-station ob-server's log . In: Oceanic Whitecaps and Their Role in Geochemical Cycling (eds E. C. Monahan and G. MacNiocaill). Kluwer, Dordrecht, 275. -
Monahan
, E. C.and O'Muircheartaigh, I. G. 1980. Optimal power-law description of oceanic whitecap coverage dependence on wind speed. J. Phys. Oceanogr, 2094– 2099. -
Monahan
, E. C.and Spillane, M. C. 1984.The role of oceanic white-caps in air-sea exchange. In: Gas Transfer at Water Surfaces (eds W. Brutsaert and G. H. Jirka), Reidel, Dordrecht, 495– 503 -
Monahan
, E. C.and Woolf, D. K. 1989. Comments on “Variations of whitecap coverage with wind stress and water temperature”. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 19, 706– 711. -
Nightingale
, P. D., Malin, G., Law, C. S., Watson, A. J., Liss, P. S.et al. 2000. In situ evaluation of air-sea gas exchange parameterizations using novel conservative and volatile tracers. Global Biogeochem. Cy. 14, 373– 387. -
Ocampo-Torres
, F. J.and Donelan, M. A. 1994. Laboratory measure-ments of mass transfer of carbon dioxide and water vapour for smooth and rough flow conditions. Tellus, 16– 32. -
Phillips
, O. M. 1985. Spectral and statistical properties of the equilibrium range in wind-generated gravity waves. J. Fluid Mech. 156, 505– 531. -
Ross
, D. B.and Cardone, V. 1974. Observations of oceanic whitecaps and their relation to remote measurements of surface wind speed. J. Geophys. Res. 79, 444– 452. -
Stramslca
, M.and Petelslci, T. 2003. Observations of oceanic white-caps in the north polar waters of the Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res. 108, 3086. -
The WAMDI Group
. The WAM model-a third generation ocean wave prediction model. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 18, 1775– 1810. -
Wanninkhof
, R. 1992. Relationship between gas exchange and wind speed over the ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 7373– 7381. -
Wanninkhof
, R.and McGillis, W. R. 1999. A cubic relationship between air-sea CO2 exchange and wind speed. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26, 1889– 1892. -
Wanninkhof
, R., Sullivan, K. F.and Top, Z. 2004. Air-sea gas transfer in the Southern Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 109, C08519, 10.1029/2003JC001767. -
Watson
, A. J., Upstill-Goddard, R. C.and Liss, P. S. 1991. Air sea gas ex-change in rough and stormy seas measured by a dual tracer technique. Nature, 145– 147. -
Woolf
, D. K. 1995.Energy dissipation through wave breaking and the air-sea exchange of gases. In: Air—Water Gas Transfer (eds B. Jähne and E. C. Monahan). AEON Verlag, Hanau, Germany, 185– 195 -
Woolf
, D. K. 1997. Bubbles and their role in gas exchange . In: The Sea Surface and Global Change (eds P. S. Liss and R. A. Duce). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 173– 205. -
Wu
, J. 1988. Variation of whitecap coverage with wind stress and water temperature. J. Phys. Oceanogr, 1448– 1453. -
Xu
, D., Liu, X.and Yu, D. 2000. Probability of wave breaking and whitecap coverage in a fetch-limited sea. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 14253– 14259. -
Zhao
, D.and Toba, Y. 2001. Dependence of whitecap coverage on wind and wind-wave properties. J. Oceanogr, 603– 616. -
Zhao
, D., Toba, Y., Suzuki, Y.and Komori, S. 2003. Effect of wind waves on air-sea gas exchange: proposal of an overall CO2 transfer velocity formula as a function of breaking-wave parameter. Tellus, 478– 487.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v57i2.16783 | Journal eISSN: 1600-0889
Language: English
Page range: 87 - 94
Submitted on: May 11, 2004
Accepted on: Oct 28, 2004
Published on: Jan 1, 2005
Published by: Stockholm University Press
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
© 2005 David K. Woolf, published by Stockholm University Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.