Table 1
Details of the three data sets used.
| Year of Survey | N (with missing) | Classes | Population |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2012 | 967 (1268) | 65 | 9th-graders in lowest, medium and highest-GPA schools (Stockholm, Linköping and Norrköping), based on results from previous year. |
| 2014 | 1386 (2033) | 50 | 9th-graders in lowest-GPA schools (national), based on results from previous year. |
| 2016 | 1867 (2607) | 42 | 9th-graders in lowest-GPA schools (Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö), lowest-GPA schools (small towns), and highest-GPA schools (national) based on results from previous year. |
Table 2
Descriptive data by survey: youth with Swedish and immigrant backgrounds compared. Means; standard deviation in parentheses.
| 2012 survey | 2014 survey | 2016 survey | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Swedish background | Immigrant background | Swedish background | Immigrant background | Swedish background | Immigrant background | |
| Grades (%) | 67.69 | 60.56 | 65.93 | 60.46 | 79.71 | 69.89 |
| (16.24) | (20.08) | (16.16) | (19.75) | (14.11) | (19.32) | |
| Max contact prestige | 68.71 | 70.25 | 67.50 | 69.44 | 68.49 | 69.67 |
| (11.40) | (11.62) | (12.54) | (12.52) | (11.77) | (13.06) | |
| Contact heterogeneity | 7.85 | 8.90 | 7.64 | 9.04 | 6.80 | 8.474 |
| (4.69) | (5.24) | (4.83) | (5.32) | (4.37) | (5.60) | |
| Both parents | 0.67 | 0.80 | 0.69 | 0.65 | 0.77 | 0.73 |
| (0.47) | (0.40) | (0.46) | (0.48) | (0.42) | (0.44) | |
| Parents’ education (years) | 13.93 | 13.31 | 13.43 | 12.08 | 14.07 | 12.43 |
| (1.50) | (1.88) | (2.10) | (2.24) | (1.68) | (2.84) | |
| Manager/professional | 0.65 | 0.40 | 0.43 | 0.08 | 0.54 | 0.13 |
| (0.48) | (0.49) | (0.50) | (0.28) | (0.50) | (0.34) | |
| Parents’ origin | ||||||
| South-east Europe | 0.17 | 0.31 | 0.27 | |||
| (0.38) | (0.46) | (0.44) | ||||
| Asia | 0.69 | 0.52 | 0.48 | |||
| (0.47) | (0.50) | (0.50) | ||||
| Africa | 0.15 | 0.16 | 0.25 | |||
| (0.35) | (0.37) | (0.44) | ||||
| Observations | 843 | 124 | 707 | 679 | 1460 | 407 |
Table 3
Ordinary least squares regression, predictors of access to social capital in each survey. Results are controlled for school type when applicable. Unstandardized coefficients. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by school.
| 2012 survey | 2014 survey | 2016 survey | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parents’ education (years) | 0.06** | 0.05** | 0.07*** |
| (0.02) | (0.01) | (0.02) | |
| Managerial/professional | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
| (0.07) | (0.06) | (0.05) | |
| Both parents | 0.02 | 0.21*** | 0.01 |
| (0.08) | (0.05) | (0.05) | |
| Parents’ origin (ref: Sweden) | |||
| South-east Europe | 0.11 | 0.40*** | 0.31** |
| (0.10) | (0.07) | (0.12) | |
| Asia | 0.50*** | 0.39*** | 0.42*** |
| (0.11) | (0.07) | (0.08) | |
| Africa | –0.57* | 0.16 | 0.60*** |
| (0.21) | (0.13) | (0.15) | |
| Constant | –1.03** | –0.85*** | –1.05*** |
| (0.31) | (0.18) | (0.22) | |
| Observations | 967 | 1386 | 1867 |
| Adjusted R2 | 0.033 | 0.043 | 0.039 |
[i] * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Table 4
OLS regression: grade returns from social capital, by survey. Results are controlled for school type when applicable. Unstandardized coefficients. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by schools.
| 2012 survey | 2014 survey | 2016 survey | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
| Parents’ education (years) | 3.13*** | 3.05*** | 2.14*** | 2.07*** | 1.87*** | 1.76*** |
| (0.36) | (0.36) | (0.24) | (0.23) | (0.23) | (0.22) | |
| Managerial/professional | 0.89 | 0.77 | 4.57** | 4.50** | 4.16*** | 4.09*** |
| (0.82) | (0.79) | (1.29) | (1.29) | (0.75) | (0.76) | |
| Both parents | 4.31*** | 4.28*** | 5.80*** | 5.48*** | 3.64*** | 3.62*** |
| (1.13) | (1.14) | (0.95) | (0.92) | (0.73) | (0.70) | |
| Boy | –3.67** | –3.38** | –5.96*** | –5.73*** | –6.45*** | –6.19*** |
| (1.18) | (1.22) | (1.26) | (1.25) | (0.68) | (0.69) | |
| Parents’ origin (ref: Sweden) | ||||||
| South-east Europe | –3.36 | –3.52 | 1.08 | 0.48 | –5.32*** | –5.81*** |
| (2.70) | (2.77) | (1.62) | (1.65) | (1.18) | (1.19) | |
| Asia | –5.55* | –6.32* | –1.02 | –1.60 | –2.66 | –3.30 |
| (2.50) | (2.54) | (1.66) | (1.64) | (1.77) | (1.70) | |
| Africa | –9.89 | –9.09 | –6.49* | –6.71* | –6.08** | –6.98*** |
| (4.96) | (5.12) | (2.58) | (2.57) | (2.01) | (1.92) | |
| Family Social Capital | 1.50** | 1.54** | 1.53*** | |||
| (0.42) | (0.55) | (0.33) | ||||
| Constant | 25.00*** | 26.35*** | 34.42*** | 35.61*** | 50.82*** | 52.32*** |
| (5.32) | (5.39) | (3.46) | (3.32) | (3.48) | (3.38) | |
| Observations | 967 | 967 | 1386 | 1386 | 1867 | 1867 |
| Adjusted R2 | 0.168 | 0.175 | 0.191 | 0.198 | 0.301 | 0.309 |
[i] * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.