Protecting Populations: Military Officers Navigating Boundaries Between Soldiering and Policing
References
- Acacio, I., Passos, A. M., & Pion-Berlin, D. (2023). Military responses to the COVID-19 pandemic crisis in Latin America: Military presence, autonomy, and human rights violations. Armed Forces & Society, 49(2), 372–394. 10.1177/0095327X211070035
- Angstrom, J., & Ljungkvist, K. (2024). Unpacking the varying strategic logics of total defence. Journal of Strategic Studies, 47(4), 498–522. 10.1080/01402390.2023.2260958
- Bayer, M., Croissant, A., Izadi, R., & Scheeder, N. (2023). Multidimensional Measures of Militarization (M3): A global dataset. Armed Forces & Society. Advance online publication. 10.1177/0095327X231215295
- Bellamy, A., & McLoughlin, S. (2022).
Humanitarian intervention . In A. Collins (Ed.), Contemporary security studies (pp. 346–361). Oxford University Press. 10.1093/hepl/9780198862192.003.0023 - Bigo, D. (2001).
The Möbius ribbon of internal and external security(ies) . In M. Albert, D. Jacobson & Y. Lapid (Eds.), Identities, borders, orders (Vol. 18, pp. 91–116). University of Minnesota Press. - Bigo, D. (2006). Internal and external aspects of security. European Security, 15(4), 385–404. 10.1080/09662830701305831
- Bittner, E. (1990). Aspects of police work. Northeastern University Press.
- Borch, O., & Heier, T. (2025). Preparing for hybrid threats to security: Collaborative preparedness and response. Routledge. 10.4324/9781032617916
- Bowling, B., & Sheptycki, J. (2012). Global policing. Sage. 10.4135/9781446251775
- Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
- Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. SAGE. 10.53841/bpsqmip.2022.1.33.46
- Campbell, D. J., & Campbell, K. M. (2010). Soldiers as police officers/police officers as soldiers: Role evolution and revolution in the United States. Armed Forces & Society, 36(2), 327–350. 10.1177/0095327X09335945
- Casey-Maslen, S., & Vestner, T. (2022). International law and policy on the protection of civilians. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/9781009052757
- Casula, M., Rangarajan, N., & Shields, P. (2021). The potential of working hypotheses for deductive exploratory research. Quality & Quantity, 55(5), 1703–1725. 10.1007/s11135-020-01072-9
- Collins, P., & Hall, R. A. (Eds.) (2022). Military operation and engagement in the domestic jurisdiction: Comparative call-out laws. Brill Nijhoff. 10.1163/9789004505964
- Dahl, J., Fyfe, N., Gundhus, H., Larsson, P., Skjevrak, P., Runhovde, S., & Vestby, A. (2022). Old, new, borrowed and blue – shifts in modern policing. The British Journal of Criminology, 62(4), 931–947. 10.1093/bjc/azab085
- Danielsen, T. (2018). Making warriors in a global era: An ethnographic study of the Norwegian Naval Special Operations Commando. Lexington Books.
- Day, A. (2020, September 24). The future of multidimensional peacekeeping. IPI Global Observatory.
https://theglobalobservatory.org/2020/09/future-multidimensional-peacekeeping/ - Delaforce, R. (2016).
Police pluralization and private security . In R. McGarry & S. Walklate (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of criminology and war. Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/978-1-137-43170-7_12 - Douglas, M. (1984). Purity and danger: An analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo. Ark Paperbacks.
- Durkheim, É. (1995). The elementary forms of religious life (K. E. Fields, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1912).
- Easton, M., den Boer, M., Janssens, J., Moelker, R., & Vander Beken, T. (Eds.) (2010). Blurring military and police roles. Eleven International Publishing.
- Eisenhardt, K., & Graebner, M. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. The Academy of Management Journal, 50(1), 25–32. 10.5465/amj.2007.24160888
- Erickson, P., Kljajić, M., & Shelef, N. (2023). Domestic military deployments in response to COVID-19. Armed Forces & Society, 49(2), 350–371. 10.1177/0095327X211072890
- Eriksson, J., & Rhinard, M. (2009). The internal–external security nexus: Notes on an emerging research agenda. Cooperation and Conflict, 44(3), 243–267. 10.1177/0010836709106215
- Flores-Macías, G. A., & Zarkin, J. (2021). The militarization of law enforcement: Evidence from Latin America. Perspectives on Politics, 19(2), 519–538. 10.1017/S1537592719003906
- Freedman, L. (2023). Humanitarian challenges of great power conflict: Signs from Ukraine. Daedalus, 152(2), 171–183. 10.1162/daed_a_02010
- Gjørv, G., Gjørv, J., Karlsson, Ø., Aasen, M., & Rongved, G. (2022).
De siviles rolle i sammensatt krigføring . In G. Rongved & P.-M. Norheim-Martinsen (Eds.), Totalforsvaret i praksis (pp. 93–105). Gyldendal. - Gustavsen, E., & Rafoss, T. W. (2019). Soldiers without a war? Public and private framings of Norway’s engagement in Afghanistan. Acta Sociologica, 62(3), 284–296. 10.1177/0001699318780966
- Haga, L. P. (2021).
Hvordan spiser man en elefant? Hybridkrig og hybride metoder . In A. K. Larssen (Ed.), Beredskap og krisehåndtering: Utfordringer på sentralt, regionalt og lokalt nivå (pp. 46–63). Cappelen Damm akademisk. - Harig, C. (2020). Soldiers in police roles. Policing and Society, 30(9), 1097–1114. 10.1080/10439463.2019.1650745
- Heier, T., & Larssen, A. K. (2024). Militærmaktens rolle i norsk krisehåndtering. Cappelen Damm akademisk.
- Holen, S. V. (2023). A duty to protect? Legal consciousness among military officers in armed conflict. Journal of Law and Society, 50(1), 17–38. 10.1111/jols.12405
- Holen, S. V. (2024). Crime, culture or war? Justifying military responses to violence against civilians. Acta Sociologica, 67(4), 491–506. 10.1177/00016993241248549
- Holmqvist, C. (2014). Policing wars: On military intervention in the twenty-first century. Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/9781137323613
- Huntington, S. P. (1985). The soldier and the state: The theory and politics of civil-military relations. Belknap Press.
- Idachaba, E. U. (2019).
Military-focused security . In S. Romaniuk, M. Thapa & P. Marton (Eds.), The Palgrave encyclopedia of global security studies (pp. 1–12). Springer. 10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_85-1 - Ingesson, T. (2016). The politics of combat: The political and strategic impact of tactical-level subcultures, 1939–1995 (Lund Political Studies No. 179) [Doctoral dissertation, Lund University].
http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/f527e088-c68e-49f8-a6c8-13cfffcfb248 - Janowitz, M. (1960). The professional soldier: A social and political portrait. Free Press. 10.2307/1891771
- Jasper, S., & Moreland, S. (2015). A comprehensive approach to multidimensional operations. Journal of International Peacekeeping, 19(1–2), 191–210. 10.1163/18754112-01902008
- Johansen, P. O. (1977). Menstadkonflikten 1931. Tiden.
- Johnston, L. (1992). The Rebirth of Private Policing. London, Routledge. 10.1111/j.1467-923X.1992.tb00905.x
- Johnston, L., & Shearing, C. (2003). Governing security: Explorations in policing and justice. Routledge.
- Jones, C. (2020).
Introduction: The war lawyers and the self-legalization of the military . In The war lawyers. Oxford University Press. 10.1093/oso/9780198842927.003.0001 - Jones, T., & Newburn, T. (2006). Plural Policing: A Comparative Perspective. London, Routledge. 10.4324/9780203001790
- Junior, D. P. S. (2022). Violence and moral exclusion: Legitimizing domestic military operations in Brazil. Armed Forces & Society, 48(3), 634–656. 10.1177/0095327X20988106
- Kaldor, M. (2020). Human security: Practical possibilities. LSE Public Policy Review, 1(2), Article 15.
https://ppr.lse.ac.uk/articles/10.31389/lseppr.15 - Kaldor, M. (2022, June 21). NATO and human security. NDC News.
https://www.ndc.nato.int/news/news.php?icode=1647 - Kaufmann, M. (2018). Kriminalitetskontroll eller sikkerhetspolitikk? Nytt Norsk Tidsskrift, 35(1), 21–31. 10.18261/issn.1504-3053-2018-01-03
- Keenan, C., & Beadle, A. (2015). Operationalizing protection of civilians in NATO operations. Stability: International Journal of Security and Development, 4(1), Article 39. 10.5334/sta.gr
- Kuhn, T. (1962). Historical structure of scientific discovery. Science, 136(3518), 760–764. 10.1126/science.136.3518.760
- Lamont, M. (2000). Meaning-making in cultural sociology: Broadening our agenda. Contemporary Sociology, 29(4), 602–607. 10.2307/2654561
- Lamont, M., & Molnár, V. (2002). The study of boundaries in the social sciences. Annual Review of Sociology, 28(1), 167–195. 10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141107
- Landru, C. (2018).
Evolution of defining the army profession . In N. K. Finney & T. O. Mayfield (Eds.), Redefining the modern military: The intersection of profession and ethics (pp. 31–38). Naval Institute Press. - Larssen, A. K. (Ed.) (2021). Beredskap og krisehåndtering: Utfordringer på sentralt, regionalt og lokalt nivå. Cappelen Damm akademisk.
- Larsson, P., Gundhus, H. I., & Granér, R. (2014). Innføring i politivitenskap. Cappelen Damm akademisk.
- Lévi-Strauss, C. (1966). The savage mind. Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
- Lipsky, M. (2010). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services (30th anniversary expanded ed.). Russell Sage Foundation.
- Ljungkvist, K. (2022). A new horizon in urban warfare in Ukraine? Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 5(1), 91–98. 10.31374/sjms.165
- Loader, I. (2000). Plural policing and democratic governance. Social & Legal Studies, 9(3), 323–345. 10.1177/096466390000900301
- Lomell, H. (2019). [Review of the book The securitization of society: Crime, risk and social order, by M. Schuilenburg]. Punishment & Society, 21(5), 639–641. 10.1177/1462474518818368
- Luker, K. (2008). Salsa dancing into the social sciences: Research in an age of info-glut. Harvard University Press.
- Mattingsdal, J., Espevik, R., Johnsen, B. H., & Hystad, S. (2023). Exploring why police and military commanders do what they do: An empirical analysis of decision-making in hybrid warfare. Armed Forces & Society. Advance online publication. 10.1177/0095327X231160711
- Mau, S. (2019). The metric society: On the quantification of the social. Policy Press.
- McCulloch, J. (2016).
Violence, policing, and war . In The Palgrave handbook of criminology and war (pp. 249–266). Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/978-1-137-43170-7_14 - McLaughlin, E., & Muncie, J. (2019). The Sage dictionary of criminology (4th ed.). Sage.
- Miller, L. L. (1997). Do soldiers hate peacekeeping? The case of preventive diplomacy operations in Macedonia. Armed Forces & Society, 23(3), 415–449. 10.1177/0095327X9702300305
- Ministry of Defence. (2020). Prop. 14 S (2020–2021) Langtidsplan for forsvarssektoren.
https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/81506a8900cc4f16bf805b936e3bb041/no/pdfs/prp202020210014000dddpdfs.pdf - Ministry of Defence. (2024). Prop. 87 S (2023–2024) Forsvarsløftet – for Norges trygghet. Langtidsplan for forsvarssektoren 2025–2036.
https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/prop-87-s-20232024/id3033833/ - Müller, M.-M. (2018). Governing crime and violence in Latin America. Global Crime, 19(3–4), 171–191. 10.1080/17440572.2018.1543916
- NATO. (2016, July 9). Policy on the protection of civilians.
https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_133945.htm - NATO. (2018). NATO military concept on the protection of civilians.
- NATO. (2022a). NATO strategic concept 2022.
- NATO. (2022b). Human security—Approach and guiding principles.
https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_208515.htm - NATO. (2025, July 10). The Hague summit declaration issued by NATO heads of state and government.
https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_236705.htm - Neumann, I. (1996). Self and other in international relations. European Journal of International Relations, 2(2), 139–174. 10.1177/1354066196002002001
- Newman, E. (2022). Covid-19: A human security analysis. Global Society, 36(4), 431–454. 10.1080/13600826.2021.2010034
- Nøkleberg, M. (2020). The public-private divide revisited: Questioning the middle ground of hybridity in policing. Policing and Society, 30(6), 601–617. 10.1080/10439463.2019.1576673
- Nowell, B., & Albrecht, K. (2019). A reviewer’s guide to qualitative rigor. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 29(2), 348–363. 10.1093/jopart/muy052
- Pion-Berlin, D. (2016). Military missions in democratic Latin America. Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/978-1-137-59270-5
- Pion-Berlin, D. (2017). Soldiers, politicians, and civilians: Reforming civil-military relations in democratic Latin America. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/9781316576632
- Rogers, C. (2017). Plural policing: Theory and practice. Policy Press. 10.56687/9781447326397
- Rongved, G. (2025). European total defence: Past, present and future. Routledge.
- Rutte, M. (2025, October 15). Press conference by NATO Secretary General Mark Rutte following the meeting of NATO Ministers of Defence in Brussels [Transcript]. NATO.
https://www.nato.int/en/news-and-events/events/transcripts/2025/10/15/press-conference - Segal, D. R., Reed, B. J., & Rohall, D. E. (1998). Constabulary attitudes of National Guard and regular soldiers in the U.S. Army. Armed Forces & Society, 24(4), 535–548. 10.1177/0095327X9802400405
- Sheptycki, J. (2000). Issues in transnational policing. Routledge.
- Sion, L. (2006). “Too sweet and innocent for war”?: Dutch peacekeepers and the use of violence. Armed Forces & Society, 32(3), 454–474. 10.1177/0095327X05281453
- Slim, H. (2007). Killing civilians: Method, madness and morality in war. Hurst.
- Spurkland, K. (2020). Forsvarets bistand til politiet: En studie av de rettslige rammene for operativ bistand fra Forsvaret til politiet (Vol. 158) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oslo].
- Stebbins, R. (2001). Exploratory research in the social sciences. SAGE Publications. 10.4135/9781412984249
- Steinbrecher, M., Elbe, M., & Biel, H. (2022). Empirical social research in and on the armed forces: Comparative and national perspectives. Springer. 10.35998/9783830543695
- Ulriksen, S. (2002). Den norske forsvarstradisjonen: Militærmakt eller folkeforsvar? Pax forlag.
- von Clausewitz, C. (2013). On war. Wordsworth Editions.
- Weiss, T. (2011). The blurring border between the police and the military: A debate without foundations. Cooperation and Conflict, 46(3), 396–405. 10.1177/0010836711416961
- Weiss, T. (2013). Fighting wars or controlling crowds? The case of the Czech military forces and the possible blurring of police and military functions. Armed Forces & Society, 39(3), 450–466. 10.1177/0095327X12457724
- Wood, J., & Shearing, C. (2007). Imagining security. Willan Publishing.
- Wrange, J. (2021). Entangled security logics: From the decision-makers’ discourses to the decision-takers’ interpretations of civil defence. European Security, 31(4), 576–596. 10.1080/09662839.2021.2021889
- Yilmaz, A. G. (2023). The missing piece of the puzzle: The EMASYA protocol and civil-military relations in Turkey. Armed Forces & Society, 49(2), 470–488. 10.1177/0095327X211066570
- Yilmaz, A. G. (2025). Operationalizing human security in NATO: The blurring of police and military boundaries and the rise of stability policing. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 295–307. 10.31374/sjms.331
- Zaalberg, T. W. B. (2005).
Introduction . In Soldiers and civil power: Supporting or substituting civil authorities in modern peace operations (pp. 11–22). Amsterdam University Press. 10.1017/9789048503902.001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.464 | Journal eISSN: 2596-3856
Language: English
Page range: 82 - 97
Submitted on: Aug 5, 2025
Accepted on: Jan 29, 2026
Published on: Feb 23, 2026
Published by: Scandinavian Military Studies
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
Keywords:
© 2026 Sine Vorland Holen, published by Scandinavian Military Studies
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.