Regulating a “Cyber Militia” – Some Lessons from Ukraine, and Thoughts about the Future
References
- Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. (1977, June 8). Retrieved from
https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/misc/additional-protocols-1977.htm - Additional Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. (1977, June 8). Retrieved from
https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/misc/additional-protocols-1977.htm - Additional Protocol III to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. (2005, June 8). Retrieved from
https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/apiii-2005 - Amnesty International. (2022, August 4). Ukraine: Ukrainian fighting tactics endanger civilians. Retrieved from
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/08/ukraine-ukrainian-fighting-tactics-endanger-civilians/ - Bergengruen, V. (2022, April 18).
How Ukraine is crowdsourcing digital evidence of war crimes . Time. Retrieved fromhttps://time.com/6166781/ukraine-crowdsourcing-war-crimes/ - Brenner, S. W., & Clarke, L. L. (2010). Civilians in cyberwarfare: Conscripts. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 43(4), 1011–1076.
- Bundesgerichtshof [Federal Court of Justice]. (2010, April 16). Case No. 3 BJs 6/10-4.
- Busstra, M., & Theeuwen, W. (2020).
International law in the context of cyber operations . In Collected papers van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Vereniging voor Internationaal Recht – nr 147 · International Law for a Digitalised World. Asser Press. - Center for Strategic and International Studies. (2022, October 5). NAFO and winning the information war: Lessons learned from Ukraine. Retrieved from
https://www.csis.org/analysis/nafo-and-winning-information-war-lessons-learned-ukraine - Commonwealth of Australia. (2021, December). Select committee on foreign interference through social media – First interim report. Retrieved from
https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/committees/reportsen/024741/toc_pdf/FirstInterimReport.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf - Egan, B. (2016, November 10).
Remarks on international law and stability in cyberspace . US Department of State. Retrieved fromhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/s/l/releases/remarks/264303.htm - Försvarsmakten. (2022, October 4). Frivilligrörelsen får uppdrag inom cyberförsvar och cybersäkerhet. Retrieved from
https://www.forsvarsmakten.se/sv/aktuellt/2022/10/frivilligrorelsen-far-uppdrag-inom-cyberforsvar-och-cybersakerhetfrivilligrorelsen-far-uppdrag-inom-cyberforsvar-och-cybersakerhet/ - Försvarsmakten. (n.d.). Swedish Home Guard (“Hemvärnet”). Retrieved from
https://www.forsvarsmakten.se/sv/var-verksamhet/det-har-gor-forsvarsmakten/hemvarnet/ - Ginsburg, T. (2017). Introduction to symposium on sovereignty, cyberspace, and Tallinn manual 2.0. AJIL Unbound, 111, 205–206. DOI: 10.1017/aju.2017.58
- Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. (2019, July). Document sent by Minister of Foreign Affairs to Parliament. Retrieved from
https://unoda-web.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/appendix-Internaional-law-in-cyberspace-kingdom-of-the-netherlands.pdf - Haataja, S. (2019). Cyber attacks and international law on the use of force: The turn to information ethics. Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/9781351057028
- Habtom, N. K.-T. (2022). The composition and challenges of foreign fighters in Ukraine. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 5(1), 79–90. DOI: 10.31374/sjms.151
- Hammes, T. X. (2019). Defending Europe: How converging technology strengthens small powers. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 2(1), 20–29. DOI: 10.31374/sjms.24
- Institute for the Study of War. (2023, January 5). Russian offensive campaign assessment. Retrieved from
https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-january-5-2023 - International Court of Justice. (1949, April 9). Corfu Channel case (I.C.J. Reports, 4).
- International Court of Justice. (1996). Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 1996 I.C.J. Rep 226.
- Kaitseliit. (2023). Estonian Defence League’s Cyber Unit. Retrieved from
https://www.kaitseliit.ee/en/cyber-unit - Kaska, K., Osula, A.-M., & Jan Stinissen, L. T. C. (2013).
The cyber defence unit of the Estonian Defence League – Legal, policy and organisational Analysis . NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence. Retrieved fromhttps://ccdcoe.org/uploads/2018/10/CDU_Analysis.pdf - Liles, L. (2014). The civilian cyber battlefield: non-state cyber operators’ status under the law of armed conflict. North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation, 39(4), 1091–1122.
- Maddocks, J. (2019). Outsourcing of governmental functions in contemporary conflict: rethinking the issue of attribution. Virginia Journal of International Law, 59(1), 47–96.
- Martin, C. (2022, March 2).
Ukraine crisis – Cyber realism in a time of war . Lawfare Blog. Retrieved from https://www.lawfareblog.com/cyber-realism-time-war;https://www.cisa.gov/uscert/ncas/alerts/aa22-158a - Maurer, T. (2018). Cyber Mercenaries. Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/9781316422724
- Mavropoulou, E. (2015). Targeting in the cyber domain: Legal challenges arising from the application of the principle of distinction to cyber attacks. Journal of Law & Cyber Warfare, 4(2), 23–93.
- Menn, J. (2022, May 1). Hacking Russia was off-limits. The Ukraine war made it a free-for-all. Washington Post. Retrieved from
https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/05/01/russia-cyber-attacks-hacking/ - Nye, J. S., Jr. (2016). Deterrence and dissuasion in cyberspace. International Security, 41(3), 44–71. DOI: 10.1162/ISEC_a_00266
- Ottis, R. (2010, July). Proactive defence tactics against on-line cyber militia. Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on Information Warfare and Security, Thessaloniki, Greece.
Reading Academic Publishing Limited , pp. 233–237. Retrieved fromhttps://ccdcoe.org/library/publications/proactive-defence-tactics-against-on-line-cyber-militia/ - Ottis, R. (2011). Theoretical Offensive Cyber Militia Models. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Information Warfare and Security, Washington, DC.
Reading Academic Publishing Limited , pp. 307–313.https://ccdcoe.org/library/publications/theoretical-offensive-cyber-militia-models/ - Prosecutor v. Strugar, Case No. IT01-42-A, Appeal Judgement, ¶ 177, 17 July 2008.
- Schmitt, M. (2002). Wired warfare: Computer network attack and international law. International Review of the Red Cross, 84(846), 365–399. DOI: 10.1017/S1560775500097741
- Schmitt, M. (Ed.) (2017). Tallinn manual 2.0 on the international law applicable to cyber operations (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/9781316822524
- Shackelford, S. J., & Andres, R. B. (2011). State responsibility for cyber attacks: competing standards for growing problem. Georgetown Journal of International Law, 42(4), 971–1016.
- Soesanto, S. (2022).
The IT Army of Ukraine: Structure, tasking, and ecosystem . Centre for Security Studies. Retrieved fromhttps://css.ethz.ch/en/publications/risk-and-resilience-reports/details.html?id=/t/h/e/i/the_it_army_of_ukraine - Storm Jensen, M. (2018). Sector responsibility or sector task? New cyber strategy occasion for rethinking the Danish sector responsibility principle. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 1(1), 1–18. DOI: 10.31374/sjms.3
- Svantesson, D. J. (2018). “Lagom Jurisdiction”: What Viking drinking etiquette can teach us about internet jurisdiction and Google France. Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology, 12(1), 29. DOI: 10.5817/MUJLT2018-1-2
- Svantesson, D. J. (2022, March 23). Legal safeguards for the volunteers of Ukraine’s cyber militia. Verfassungsblog on Matters Constitutional. Retrieved from
https://verfassungsblog.de/legal-safeguards-for-the-volunteers-of-ukraines-cyber-militia/ - Svantesson, D. J., Azzopardi, R., Bonython, W.E., Crowe, J., Freeland, S. R., Haataja, S., Ireland-Piper, D., & Mark, N. (2021).
The developing concept of sovereignty: Considerations for defence operations in cyberspace and outer space . Technology and Jurisdiction Research Team Law Faculty Bond University. Retrieved fromhttps://bond.edu.au/files/5701/The%20Developing%20Concept%20of%20Sovereignty.pdf - Svantesson, D. J., Haataja, S., Ireland-Piper, D., & Chen, K.-W. (2023). On sovereignty. Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology, 17(1), 33–85.
- Tinker, P. (2015).
Dor the common defense of cyberspace: Implications of a US cyber militia on Department of Defense cyber operations [Master’s thesis]. U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. Retrieved fromhttps://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA623946.pdf - Tsagourias, N. (2016). Non-state actors, ungoverned spaces and international responsibility for cyber acts. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 21(3), 455–474. DOI: 10.1093/jcsl/krw020
- United Nations. (1945). Charter of the United Nations, 1 UNTS XVI.
- United Nations. (1970, October 24). General Assembly Resolution 2625 (XXV), UN Doc A/RES/2625(XXV).
- United Nations. (2021a, July 14). Group of Governmental Experts on Advancing Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace in the Context of International Security (A/76/135).
- United Nations. (2021b, March 5). Report of the 2021 Open Ended Working Group, A/75/816, Annex I.
- United Nations. (2022, July 28). Open-ended working group on security of and in the use of information and communications technologies 2021–2025, A/AC.292/2022/CRP.1.
- United States Department of the Army and U.S. Department of the Marine Corps Tactics and Operations Group. (2022, July). Urban operations ATP 3-06/MCTP 12-10B. Retrieved from
https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/atp3_06.pdf - Väljataga, A. (2022, March).
Cyber vigilantism in support of Ukraine: A legal analysis . NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence. Retrieved fromhttps://ccdcoe.org/uploads/2022/04/Cyber-vigilantism-in-support-of-Ukraine-a-legal-analysis.pdf - Wilson, A. (2017, March 15). Four types of Russian propaganda. Aspen Review. Retrieved from
https://www.aspen.review/article/2017/four-types-of-russian-propaganda/
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.195 | Journal eISSN: 2596-3856
Language: English
Page range: 86 - 101
Submitted on: Jan 7, 2023
Accepted on: Jun 30, 2023
Published on: Jul 11, 2023
Published by: Scandinavian Military Studies
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
Keywords:
© 2023 Dan Jerker B. Svantesson, published by Scandinavian Military Studies
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.