Table 1
Exposure variables by population group (N = 3284).
| Variable | Black African n = 1982 | White African n = 253 | Multi-Ancestry n = 637 | Indian/Asian African n = 287 | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | ||
| Age | 61.3 (9.5) | 62.8 (9.0) | 61.7 (9.6) | 62.3 (8.1) | 0.261 |
| n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | ||
| Gender | |||||
| Female | 1250 (60.0) | 137 (53.6) | 423 (63.2) | 171 (61.1) | 0.522 |
| Male | 803 (40.0) | 132 (46.4) | 232 (36.8) | 136 (38.9) | |
| Education | |||||
| < 7 years | 1241 (60.5) | 12 (3.7) | 318 (42.1) | 111 (34.5) | < 0.001 |
| 8–11 | 536 (29.2) | 112 (38.2) | 265 (44.3) | 134 (37.3) | |
| 12 or more | 195 (10.3) | 131 (58.1) | 34 (13.7) | 51 (28.2) | |
| Wealth | |||||
| Low | 1055 (50.6) | 8 (3.0) | 212 (24.8) | 23 (13.1) | < 0.001 |
| Medium | 416 (21.0) | 14 (4.3) | 165 (18.3) | 53 (14.9) | |
| High | 570 (28.4) | 245 (92.7) | 277 (56.9) | 230 (72.1) | |
| Residence | |||||
| Urban | 1131 (56.5) | 218 (84.9) | 545 (89.6) | 285 (86.2) | 0.003 |
| Rural | 920 (43.5) | 51 (15.1) | 110 (10.4) | 22 (13.8) | |
| Marital status | |||||
| Not married, single | 1059 (49.7) | 82 (31.5) | 333 (46.2) | 115 (45.5) | 0.018 |
| Married, cohabiting | 952 (50.3) | 181 (68.5) | 313 (53.8) | 191 (54.5) | |
| Daily tobacco use | 378 (17.7) | 58 (21.8) | 205 (34.1) | 56 (19.3) | 0.006 |
| Problem drinking | 91 (4.0) | 7 (4.5) | 33 (4.5) | 9 (1.8) | 0.706 |
| Physical inactivity | 1207 (57.7) | 169 (55.7) | 518 (76.9) | 182 (52.3) | 0.005 |
| Inadequate fruit and vegetable consumption | 1580 (72.3) | 158 (47.7) | 511 (73.7) | 185 (54.6) | 0.007 |
Table 2
Prevalence of health status and chronic conditions by population group.
| Variable | Black African n (%) | White African n (%) | Multi-Ancestry n (%) | Indian/Asian African n (%) | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Health status | |||||
| Poor self-rated health | 362 (19.6) | 21 (4.0) | 99 (10.0) | 57 (23.7) | < 0.001 |
| Grip strength | 1472 (78.5) | 204 (81.1) | 417 (55.3) | 178 (71.4) | < 0.001 |
| ADL-severe | 85 (4.7) | 12 (4.4) | 29 (5.0) | 33 (11.6) | 0.409 |
| IADL-severe | 346 (19.7) | 27 (7.8) | 97 (20.1) | 67 (29.1) | 0.007 |
| Cognitive functioning | 798 (44.5) | 211 (80.1) | 342 (60.5) | 176 (64.7) | < 0.001 |
| Chronic conditions | |||||
| Arthritis | 536 (27.3) | 52 (18.7) | 214 (39.1) | 111 (43.5) | < 0.001 |
| Asthma | 192 (11.8) | 15 (8.4) | 62 (11.2) | 46 (12.8) | 0.654 |
| Lung disease | 124 (6.0) | 15 (7.1) | 37 (6.4) | 29 (6.2) | 0.961 |
| Hypertension | 1550 (77.3) | 193 (79.6) | 545 (85.0) | 214 (76.8) | 0.147 |
| Obesity | 843 (45.3) | 110 (46.7) | 245 (46.8) | 104 (38.7) | 0.814 |
| Diabetes | 149 (7.8) | 23 (12.0) | 68 (10.5) | 69 (24.4) | 0.021 |
| Stroke and/or angina | 138 (7.1) | 28 (9.0) | 73 (15.0) | 48 (11.5) | < 0.001 |
| Depression | 57 (3.2) | 9 (2.1) | 21 (1.3) | 14 (3.3) | 0.319 |
| Edentulism | 90 (4.1) | 54 (18.0) | 145 (26.8) | 33 (5.1) | < 0.001 |
| Low vision | 769 (41.2) | 92 (39.2) | 323 (50.6) | 123 (41.5) | 0.148 |
Table 3
Odds ratios for health status and chronic conditions by population group.
| Black African (n = 1982) | White (n = 253) | Coloured (n = 637) | Indian or Asian (n = 287) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | P value | OR (95% CI) | P value | OR (95% CI) | P value | ||
| Health status | |||||||
| Poor self-rated health | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 0.17 (0.07, 0.39) | <0.001 | 0.46 (0.23, 0.89) | 0.023 | 1.27 (0.76, 2.12) | 0.346 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 0.24 (0.11, 0.57) | 0.002 | 0.50 (0.29, 0.87) | 0.016 | 1.70 (0.89, 3.24) | 0.1.08 |
| Grip strength | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 1.18 (0.57, 2.41) | 0.642 | 0.34 (0.21, 0.56) | <0.001 | 0.68 (0.43, 1.10) | 0.112 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 1.02 (0.47, 2.22) | 0.950 | 0.36 (0.22, 0.61) | <0.001 | 0.68 (0.42, 1.11) | 0.118 |
| ADL-severe | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 0.95 (0.34, 2.61) | 0.915 | 1.08 (0.25, 4.60) | 0.914 | 2.68 (0.94, 7.68) | 0.065 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 1.04 (0.42, 2.58) | 0.927 | 1.08 (0.34, 3.46) | 0.889 | 3.27 (1.09, 9.80) | 0.035 |
| IADL-severe | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 0.34 (0.17, 0.69) | 0.003 | 1.02 (0.61, 1.71) | 0.925 | 1.67 (1.07, 2.59) | 0.025 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 0.32 (0.14, 0.72) | 0.007 | 0.97 (0.58, 1.61) | 0.902 | 1.87 (1.09, 3.22) | 0.025 |
| Cognitive functioning | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 5.04 (2.13, 11.91) | <0.001 | 1.92 (1.18, 3.11) | 0.010 | 2.28 (1.28, 4.05) | 0.006 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 3.92 (1.63, 9.41) | 0.003 | 2.14 (1.21, 3.78) | 0.010 | 1.81 (0.86, 3.80) | 0.113 |
| Chronic conditions | |||||||
| Arthritis | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 0.61 (0.37, 1.00) | 0.050 | 1.71 (1.20, 2.42) | 0.004 | 2.05 (1.16.3.61) | 0.015 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 0.54 (0.31, 0.93) | 0.027 | 1.42 (0.98, 2.04) | 0.061 | 1.91 (1.01, 3.59) | 0.046 |
| Asthma | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 0.68 (0.27, 1.71) | 0.410 | 0.94 (0.66, 1.35) | 0.751 | 1.09 (0.51, 2.36) | 0.814 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 0.60 (0.22, 1.61) | 0.302 | 0.87 (0.61, 1.24) | 0.436 | 0.99 (0.43, 2.26) | 0.978 |
| Lung disease | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 1.20 (0.51, 2.79) | 0.669 | 1.07 (0.55, 2.08) | 0.848 | 1.04 (0.34, 3.15) | 0.949 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 1.10 (0.47, 2.59) | 0.823 | 0.99 (0.50, 2.00) | 0.987 | 0.92 (0.27, 3.22) | 0.900 |
| Hypertension | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 1.44 (0.64, 2.05) | 0.640 | 1.66 (1.08, 2.56) | 0.022 | 0.97 (0.59, 1.60) | 0.913 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 0.99 (0.51, 1.92) | 0.964 | 1.71 (1.14, 2.55) | 0.010 | 0.84 (0.56, 1.25) | 0.376 |
| Obesity | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 1.06 (0.64, 1.75) | 0.824 | 1.10 (0.69, 1.77) | 0.682 | 0.75 (0.48, 1.18) | 0.209 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 0.72 (0.43, 1.22) | 0.220 | 0.80 (0.52, 1.22) | 0.282 | 0.55 (0.33, 0.92) | 0.024 |
| Diabetes | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 1.60 (0.64, 3.99) | 0.302 | 1.37 (0.74, 2.56) | 0.307 | 3.80 (1.96, 7.36) | <0.001 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 1.12 (0.50, 2.53) | 0.783 | 0.99 (0.62, 1.57) | 0.964 | 2.65 (1.45, 4.83) | 0.002 |
| Stroke and/or angina | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 1.30 (0.67, 2.51) | 0.430 | 2.32 (1.73, 3.12) | <0.001 | 1.71 (0.93, 3.13) | 0.083 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 0.91 (0.47, 1.76) | 0.771 | 1.74 (1.36, 2.22) | <0.001 | 1.36 (0.69, 2.71) | 0.367 |
| Depression | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 0.72 (0.30, 1.72) | 0.458 | 0.63 (0.34, 1.17) | 0.140 | 1.02 (0.36, 2.87) | 0.976 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 0.73 (0.23, 2.29) | 0.579 | 0.49 (0.23, 1.02) | 0.056 | 1.04 (0.33, 3.23) | 0.947 |
| Edentulism | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 5.16 (2.49, 10.07) | <0.001 | 8.56 (5.01, 14.70) | <0.001 | 1.27 (0.63, 2.55) | 0.492 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 4.13 (1.73, 9.87) | 0.002 | 6.51 (4.07, 10.41) | <0.001 | 1.03 (0.50, 2.09) | 0.944 |
| Low vision | |||||||
| Unadjusted | 1 (Reference) | 0.92 (0.53, 1.61) | 0.768 | 1.46 (1.06, 2.02) | 0.021 | 1.01 (0.81, 1.27) | 0.901 |
| Adjusted1 | 1 (Reference) | 1.05 (0.56, 1.96) | 0.873 | 1.68 (1.29, 2.19) | <0.001 | 1.11 (0.82, 1.51) | 0.482 |
[i] OR = Odds Ratio, CI = Confidence Interval; 1Adjusted for age, gender, education, wealth, residence, tobacco use, alcohol use, physical inactivity and fruit and vegetable consumption.