Criminalistics is among the disciplines that determine the level and content of the professional training of future investigators, criminalists, experts, prosecutors and judges, as well as the leaders of law enforcement agencies.
Studying criminalistics not only ensures that students acquire the practical skills necessary for working with evidence and planning and organising criminal proceedings, but also fosters the development of a system of views, convictions and principles essential for a conscious, creative and proactive approach to addressing tasks related to crime control. This creates a need to move beyond teaching criminalistics solely on a practical level and to also direct attention to the scientific foundations of the discipline. Knowledge and skills must be integrated—achieved through the parallel teaching of both practical activities and theoretical foundations.
The problems related to the teaching of criminalistics began to receive attention soon after the publication of Hans Gustav Adolf Gross’s book Handbuch für Untersuchungsrichter als System der Kriminalistik in 1893. Already in 1921, Manns (2010), focusing on the issues of criminalistics education, emphasised the importance of addressing the following questions: Who should teach it? To whom should it be taught? When and how should it be taught? These very same questions remain relevant even today.
Associate Professor Hubert Kolecki of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań argues that criminalistics has not been—and still is not—included in the curricula of many universities in Western Europe and the United States. There, it is primarily taught at police and military academies as an applied subject. Criminalistics holds the status of a universitylevel discipline mainly in the countries of the former so-called ‘socialist bloc’ and in some universities in Austria, Switzerland, France, Belgium and Germany (Kolecki, 2012: 24–39). Even in German specialist literature, attention has been drawn—already at the beginning of the current century—to the need for developing a modern, future-oriented scientific criminalistics within universities (Jaeger, 2000).
The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the teaching of criminalistics in the higher education institutions of the Republic of Estonia. It examines how many universities previously offered criminalistics instruction and how many continue to do so today. The article also considers whether the current volume of instruction in this subject area is sufficient to ensure the future generation of criminologists in Estonia.
This article does not present a clearly defined research framework, as it is a review article with a descriptive character and does not include critical analysis. In addition, it describes the instruments and modern technologies used in teaching, the impact of the COVID-19 period on instruction and the measures implemented to ensure continuity of education during that time.
The relevance of the article lies in the fact that in recent years, the number of academic hours allocated to criminalistics has been significantly reduced in academic universities, and the teaching of criminalistics now primarily takes place at the level of applied higher education. The authors draw attention to this issue based on their theoretical and practical experience, having worked in the law enforcement system and having taught criminalistics at various Estonian higher education institutions.
The topic is novel in that recent changes in the teaching of criminalistics in Estonia have not yet been addressed in the academic context. As the use of international investigative teams in cross-border crime investigation has expanded, understanding how criminalistics is taught in partner countries contributes to the development of effective cooperation.
The authors employed an unstructured data collection method, which allowed to address instructional issues across different higher education institutions. A mixed-methods approach was used, including a comparison of subject curricula, a review of education-related administrative directives and participant observation (as the authors have taught criminalistics in Estonian universities for many years). Data from these sources were triangulated to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the topic. A comparison of criminalistics instruction across Estonian higher education institutions provided insight into current teaching practices.
Contemporary higher education in Estonia is developing in accordance with higher education reform, a process that began in the summer of 2011 as part of the Isamaa and Res Publica Union (IRL) parties’ election promise to provide free higher education. This process involves a comprehensive transformation of the Estonian higher education system, including amendments to both the Universities Act and the Study Allowances and Study Loans Act. The reform was fully implemented for students who began their studies in the autumn of 2013 and partially applied to so-called ‘continuing students’ who enrolled earlier.
In 2016, Estonia had six public universities and eight state professional higher education institutions, of which six operated under the Ministry of Education and Research, one under the Ministry of the Interior and one under the Ministry of Defence. In addition, higher education could be obtained at two state vocational education institutions and eight private educational institutions. Over the past 10 years, the number of institutions providing higher education has decreased from 39 to 24.
Criminalistics has been taught in Estonia during various periods at both private and public higher education institutions. University Nord (known until 1998 as the Tallinna Bakalaureuse Erakool) was one of the first private universities in Estonia. The institution operated from 1991 to 2010. It was established on 20 May 1991, in Tallinn and was known as the Tallinna Bakalaureuse Erakool until 1998. From 1998 onward, the operating body was Eraakadeemia Nord OÜ, and the institution adopted the name University Nord. In 2010, the university was merged with Tallinn University, and as of 1 July 2010, it continued under the name of Tallinn University School of Law.
University Nord had three faculties: the Faculty of Law and Management, the Faculty of Psychology and Communication and the Centre for Humanities. The university offered programmes in law, psychology, advertising and marketing. By the late 1990s, the university had between 1,200 and 1,400 students and employed 65 staff members, including 45–50 teaching staff.
The first dean of the Faculty of Law was Professor Advig Kiris, who served from 1991 to 1995. From 1995 to 2008, the position was held by Igor Gräzin, and since 2008, Ilmar Selge has served as dean.
Instruction was offered at both the bachelor’s and master’s levels. In 2002, doctoral studies were also launched within the Faculties of Law and Psychology.
Since 2001, University Nord was a full member of the International Association of Universities, as well as a full member of several other professional associations. Faculty and student exchange programmes were conducted with institutions of higher education in Finland, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany.
Between 2001 and 2008, the research centre Free Europe operated within the academy. It was led by Professor Ivar Raig (Wikipedia, 2024).
Among private institutions of higher education, criminalistics was taught at the Higher School ‘I Studium’ (I Stuudium), which operated from 1997 to 2011. The institution began its activities in 1997 under the name of Institute I Studium and was classified as an applied higher education institution.
At Higher School I Studium, criminalistics was taught until the summer of 2009 as part of the Economic Law curriculum within the Faculty of Law. The course in criminalistics carried 1 credit point (ECTS) and comprised 40 academic hours. In the autumn of 2009, the activities of the Faculty of Law were discontinued, which also brought an end to the teaching of criminalistics at the institution (Wikipedia, 2023).
The Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences (Sotsiaal-Humanitaarinstituut), which commenced operations on 16 May 2005, was classified as a professional higher education institution, offering 4-year applied programmes in law, economics and psychology. Within the Faculty of Law, the law curriculum offered specialisation in four areas: legal expert– criminalist, legal expert–human resources manager, legal expert–business manager and legal expert–social worker. The Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences was the only private higher education institution where graduates could obtain the qualification of legal expert–criminalist. Criminalistics courses were taught in the third and fourth years of study within the legal expert–criminalist specialisation of the Faculty of Law. The courses were titled Criminalistics and Criminalistics Practicum. The course in criminalistics carried 2 credit points (AP) and comprised 80 academic hours. Its aim was to provide an overview of criminalistics as a scientific discipline, covering investigative techniques, tactics and methodology. The Criminalistics Practicum aimed to develop practical skills in criminalistics and consisted of 40 h, corresponding to 1 credit point (AP).
Upon completion of the nominal 4-year period of study, students obtained a professional higher education degree. Studies at the Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences were tuition-based. The institution ceased operations on 31 December 2011 (Estonian Institute of Humanities, n.d.).
As of today, the aforementioned private higher education institutions have ceased their activities, and the teaching of criminalistics has remained solely within state higher education institutions.
Tallinn School of Economics is the oldest state vocational education institution in Estonia, established in 1906. The school offers 14 curricula at various levels, encompassing both degree programmes and continuing education courses. Within the Department of Administrative Work, legal assistants are trained, and legal continuing education is provided for local government officials.
The teaching of criminalistics at the institution was conducted primarily in the form of overview lectures, which offered a brief introduction to various areas of criminalistics. No practicums were held due to a lack of technical resources and training facilities. At present, the curriculum does not include a course in criminalistics (Wikipedia, 2024).
In present-day Estonia, criminalistics is taught at the Police and Border Guard College of the Estonian Academy of Security Sciences (hereinafter EASS), Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn University and the Faculty of Law at the University of Tartu. Thus, there are four higher education institutions in Estonia whose curricula include courses in criminalistics.
The curriculum of Tallinn University of Technology includes a course titled Computer Criminalistics (3 ECTS), in which the volume of classroom-based instruction, according to the course syllabus, is 2 academic hours (hereinafter academic hours). In the English-language master’s programme in law at Tallinn University of Technology, the degree or diploma awarded is Master of Law. The specialisation is in Technology Law, covering the academic fields of business, administration and law. The nominal duration of studies in the law curriculum group is 2 years, with the internship component comprising 6 ECTS credits (Haridusportaal, 2025).
The curriculum of Tallinn University includes a course titled Criminalistics (3 ECTS), which concludes with an exam. The course is structured around contact-based instruction, consisting of 20 academic hours (hereinafter academic hours) of lectures. No practicums are included, likely due to the lack of appropriate technical facilities (Tallinn University, 2025).
At the Faculty of Law of the University of Tartu, the elective course Criminalistics Techniques was offered from 2008 to 2016. The course included both theoretical instruction and practical training. It was part of the full-time study curriculum and comprised 12 h of lectures, 4 h of seminars, 8 h of practicums and concluded with a 4-h pass/fail assessment (3 ECTS). In the Open University format, the same course included 6 h of lectures, 4 h of seminars and 4 h of practicums, and also concluded with a pass/fail assessment (3 ECTS) (University of Tartu, 2025).
Part of the instruction took place at the Estonian Forensic Science Institute (Eesti Kohtuekspertiisi Instituut [EKEI]), where students were introduced to autopsy procedures. Laboratory work in Criminalistics Techniques was conducted in the facilities of the EASS, utilising their material and technical resources.
The practical components of the elective were designed to help students develop manual skills and benefit from more individualised instruction. For this reason, group sizes were limited to approximately 10 students. Depending on the year, there were 1–3 such subgroups.
Additionally, a course in Investigation Methodology (3 ECTS) was offered as an elective in the master’s programme. In total, the criminalistics-related courses accounted for 9 ECTS credits.
Currently, the curriculum of the Faculty of Law at the University of Tartu includes two courses in the field of criminalistics:
Criminalistics (3 ECTS), in which the volume of classroom-based instruction in full-time study is 18 academic hours of lectures and 6 academic hours of seminars; in session-based study, the course includes 12 academic hours of lectures and 6–10 academic hours of seminars.
Digital Evidence, Cyber Criminalistics and Cybercrime (3 ECTS), in which the volume of classroom-based instruction is the same in both full-time and session-based study: 15 academic hours of lectures and 18 academic hours of seminars (University of Tartu, 2025).
The most extensive instruction in criminalistics takes place at the EASS, where it is taught at both the vocational and higher education levels. The Academy has adopted a modular-based learning system. Criminalistics subjects are taught across three modules:
- 1)
At the vocational education level, the module Processing of Misdemeanours and Initiation of Criminal Proceedings includes courses totalling approximately 7 ECTS credits (Estonian Academy of Security Sciences, 2025);
- 2)
In the higher education programme, the module Conducting Criminal Proceedings—common to all specialisation tracks—includes the following courses: Crime Mechanism and Practical Methods of Trace Analysis, General Model of Crime Investigation and Investigation Planning, and Carrying Out Investigative, Surveillance and Other Evidence-Gathering Procedures. The total volume of this module is 14 ECTS credits;
- 3)
The specialisation module for the Criminal Police, Investigation of Serious Crimes, comprises 16 ECTS credits (Estonian Academy of Security Sciences, 2025).
Thus, the total volume of criminalistics instruction at EASS amounts to 37 ECTS credits.
Beginning with the 2025/2026 academic year, studies at the Police and Border Guard College of the EASS will follow a newly conceptualised curriculum. According to this new structure, instruction in the field of criminalistics will be differentiated according to specialisation tracks (patrol, border guard, investigator). Compared with the current curriculum, the criminalistics modules will be smaller in scope and more targeted, based on the classical division of criminalistics.
In the investigator specialisation, the modules are as follows: Criminalistics Methodology (3 ECTS), Theory of Evidence and Tactics of Investigative Actions (6 ECTS), Criminalistics Techniques and Forensic Science (9 ECTS), General Part of Investigation Methodology (3 ECTS), Special Part of Investigation Methodology (12 ECTS) and Practical Investigation of Crimes (9 ECTS), totalling 42 ECTS credits (Estonian Academy of Security Sciences, 2025).
The content and scope of courses titled Criminalistics vary across the curricula of the four Estonian universities offering them. Classical criminalistics is taught almost exclusively at the EASS and, to some extent, at the University of Tartu. The field’s shift towards new technologies and applications is understandable. A clear example of this is the course of Computer Criminalistics offered at Tallinn University of Technology. Today, many crimes have moved into the digital realm (cybercrime, cyber-dependent crimes).
At the University of Tartu, Criminalistics is currently an elective course within the law programme, providing foundational knowledge in the field. The topics covered include criminalistics methodology, tactics and crime investigation methodology.
At the EASS, students are not trained as lawyers but as police officers capable of conducting pre-trial criminal proceedings. Accordingly, the instruction is more practice-oriented in nature. At Tallinn University, Tallinn University of Technology and the University of Tartu, the Criminalistics course has a study volume of 3 ECTS credits. By contrast, at the EASS, the volume of criminalistics instruction ranges up to 14 ECTS credits in the border guard and public order policing tracks, and up to 30 ECTS credits in the criminal police specialisation. A comparison of the curricula and course syllabi revealed that, with the exception of the EASS, graduates of other higher education institutions who wish to work as criminalists would need to undergo additional training—either at EASS or within the criminalistics departments of regional police prefectures, as well as through specialised training courses organised with the participation of international colleagues. This is because other universities do not provide training in criminalistics techniques that meet the qualification requirements for criminalist positions, as outlined in official job descriptions.
The comparison of documents offered a concise overview of the criminalistics-related courses and curricula in Estonian universities that provide instruction in this field, as well as the focus and orientation of each institution’s criminalistics education. The course content and curricula showed that at the Estonian Entrepreneurship University of Applied Sciences (EUAS), criminalistics is taught in a fairly general and survey-based manner, providing students with an overview of procedural tactics. At the University of Tartu’s Faculty of Law, general criminalistics theory and procedural methodology are taught in greater depth; however, instruction in criminalistics techniques is not included.
As a small country, Estonia is not capable of preparing specialists at all levels and in all fields to the extent expected by employers. This makes it all the more important to fully harness the potential of each individual and to provide opportunities for acquiring education in accordance with their abilities. To use resources more efficiently, it is necessary—both at the national and institutional levels—to eliminate unreasonable duplication of academic programmes, which may otherwise send misleading signals to young people about the realities and demands of the labour market. Achieving these goals requires that employer involvement in the educational process becomes increasingly routine (Estonian Ministry of Education and Research, 2016, p. 3).
The learner and their skills are at the centre of the revised educational approach. ‘Skills refer to a person’s ability to act purposefully and consistently while considering circumstances, to select appropriate methods and tools for an action or activity. They require the application of previously acquired knowledge, making knowledge and skills inseparably linked aspects of any purposeful action or activity’ (Maruste, 1981, as cited in Lindmäe, 1982: 6). A person’s skills are dependent on their knowledge of the action or activity to be performed. The quality of knowledge, in turn, depends not only on the students’ efforts but also on the qualifications of the instructors. Seminars and independent assignments are case-based.
Universities do not use cameras, microscopes or other tools of criminalistics technology in their instruction. At the University of Tartu, academic activities are regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research, whose aim in legal education is to provide foundational knowledge in criminalistics to future prosecutors, attorneys and judges.
The EASS (Sisekaitseakadeemia), which operates under the Ministry of the Interior, provides education for police officers. As a result, the training has a more practical focus. The aim is to use, in instruction, the same technical tools that are employed in real-world practice. To achieve this, the Academy maintains close cooperation with the relevant departments and units of the Police and Border Guard Board (PPA).
In both vocational and higher education programmes at the EASS, similar criminalistics equipment is used. The acquisition of instructional tools is guided by the principle that future police officers should be familiar with the criminalistics technology applied in regional police prefectures. Accordingly, the procurement of criminalistics equipment is carried out centrally based on orders submitted by the heads of relevant units, who determine the needs of both teaching and daily police work.
Although the amount of equipment allocated to schools is necessarily limited (e.g. it is not feasible to assign each cadet a personal camera or crime scene kit during training), the schools are nevertheless equipped with the same types of tools used by criminalists in the prefectures. In the prefectures, for instance, each criminalist has a personal camera and a dedicated crime scene kit. For investigating specialised types of crime scenes—such as those involving fires or narcotic substances—there is typically one specific kit per institution, both in schools and in prefectures. These specialised kits are produced by companies such as Helling, CIRCHIE, BVDA and others that manufacture criminalistics equipment.
The correlation between the use of technical tools, staged crime scenes, dedicated training facilities and theoretical instruction (lectures and independent study of academic literature) in the teaching of criminalistics varies across universities.
As previously mentioned, at Tallinn University, criminalistics instruction is limited to theoretical teaching in the form of lectures. Laboratory sessions are not practiced due to the limited scope of the course and the lack of material and technical resources.
The goal of applied higher education at the EASS is for cadets to acquire not only theoretical knowledge, but also practical skills and experience, so that upon graduation they are immediately prepared to work independently. The investigation of criminal cases is a form of police activity that requires officers to endure constant psychological pressure. This is due to specific characteristics of the work, including: operating under adversarial conditions; the influence of unexpected events, the need to utilise or respond to them; and making decisions under informational and time constraints. Additionally, officers must act in accordance with legal requirements under these pressures and be able to explain those requirements to other participants involved in investigative procedures. Consequently, the proportion of practical training at the Academy is significantly higher than at universities, constituting approximately 50% of the instruction. At both the University of Tartu and the EASS, the teaching of criminalistics has gradually shifted from traditional academic lectures to a lecture-discussion format. Additionally, case-based seminars have been integrated with students’ independent work. As part of their independent tasks, students are given a case related to the investigation of a crime and are required to submit their solution either through the Moodle platform or via email to the lecturer. The solution typically involves the analysis of an investigative situation, the formulation of investigative hypotheses and the planning of the investigation both as a whole and in terms of individual investigative actions. The lecturer provides feedback in the form of results of the planned actions, based on which the students continue solving the case independently, again submitting their work via Moodle. Case solving is carried out in small groups of 2–4 students, which encourages peer-to-peer academic discussions outside of seminars and fosters teamwork. During seminars, general issues and challenges encountered in the course of solving the case are discussed, after which the students continue working on the case as independent assignments.
Although the trend in teaching is towards providing individual feedback, there is no movement towards fully individualised instruction, due to a lack of financial resources. The majority of full-time criminalistics lecturers have practical work experience, having previously served as criminal investigators, forensic experts or detectives. In recent years, the EASS has increasingly involved practitioners working in the field as adjunct lecturers, especially in topics related to digital evidence collection, the investigation of complex latent crimes and forensic expertise. In the Criminal Police specialisation module ‘Investigation of Serious Crimes’, approximately 50% of teaching staff are external practitioners. Seminars and practical classes are often conducted by two instructors, one of whom is a current practitioner in the field.
Classroom-based instruction is conducted on the premises of the EASS. Teaching is not carried out in the facilities of partner institutions, primarily due to security considerations (these institutions lack the specialised facilities required for instruction), and because it is not feasible to travel to such locations within the time allotted between scheduled classes. At the University of Tartu, a moot court is used as a teaching method, and in this field, notable success has been achieved at international competitions.
In order to ensure that police officers are capable of resolving non-standard and psychologically complex investigative situations during the course of investigative procedures, the EASS has implemented specially adapted facilities for the practical execution of crime scene inspection and searches, crime scene computer simulations in the XVR environment, and video-recorded interrogation training sessions. These tools are utilised both in basic police training and in the continuing education of practicing officers. Interrogations are conducted in specially designated rooms, without the presence of observers or other students.
The room is equipped with four video cameras, and students in the auditorium can follow the investigative procedure in realtime via video transmission, including the protocol drafting by the interrogator. This allows students to analyse and compare how the content of the interrogation is reflected in the written protocol. The lecturer present in the auditorium can control the cameras using a command panel, directing students’ attention to key aspects of the investigative procedure, including body language. The role of the person subjected to the investigative procedure (e.g. the interrogated or detainee) is played by a fellow student. This student is in contact with the lecturer, enabling the lecturer to provide instructions on how to act or respond as the scenario evolves. After completing the assignment, a debriefing discussion is held with students to reflect on how well the task was executed and to explore the emotions and difficulties experienced during the exercise.
A serious challenge for the organisation of teaching arose from the declaration of a state of emergency by the Government of the Republic on 12 March 2020 due to the pandemic spread of the coronavirus Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), which caused the disease COVID-19. The state of emergency remained in effect until 17 May 2020.
To limit the spread of the virus, it was imperative to implement the command structure stipulated in Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Emergency Act (2017), along with the measures prescribed for a state of emergency (Purtsak, 2020).
Thus, regardless of whether a state of emergency, a health emergency or a threat of emergency is declared in the country, it is crucial that various state institutions, including the education system, continue to function.
At the onset of the pandemic in 2020, Estonia experienced a complete societal lockdown, which resulted in the transition of all levels of education to distance learning.
The main issue accompanying this transition, according to the authors, lies in the specific nature of university-level education compared with general education—particularly in terms of integrating theory and practice. One of the guiding principles in organising teaching at the University of Tartu is the adherence to best practices (University of Tartu, 2025), which means that high-quality teaching is valued, recognised and supported at the University of Tartu.
Such a decision by the Government of the Republic created an urgent need for additional training for both students and educators, including university students and academic staff. For example, at the University of Tartu, various professional development courses were organised for lecturers. Among the most significant were the following: Approximate estimation of student workload; Readiness to teach a course with e-support; Recommendations for conducting thesis defenses in an online environment; Methodological suggestions for delivering lectures in a digital environment; Methodological recommendations for conducting webinars; Assessment and providing feedback to learners; Suggestions for adapting assessment in distance learning conditions; Preparation for attestation (the training focused on the preparation of teaching self-analysis); and Supporting independent reading.
Lecturers were provided with guidelines on what to consider and how to proceed in a distance learning context. The directives (University of Tartu, n.d.) emphasised that, given the circumstances, it was necessary to implement an alternative approach to the organisation and structure of teaching. When planning instruction, it was important to bear in mind that the situation was new for both students and lecturers, bringing with it a unique set of challenges.
Lecturers were issued guidelines outlining key considerations and recommended actions for conducting instruction in a distance learning environment. The directives stressed that, in light of the extraordinary circumstances, it was essential to adopt a different approach to the organisation and structure of teaching. In planning instruction, it was important to recognise that the situation was unprecedented for both students and lecturers, and thus presented a distinct set of challenges.
When planning instruction, it was deemed reasonable to structure the topic into three parts:
Preparatory individual task assigned to the student, which may consist of a reading text, watching a video or listening to an audio file. Clear instructions must be provided for the independent task, along with a specific assignment related to the material (e.g. writing a summary, formulating questions, responding to questions posed by the lecturer or compiling a table).
Support for learning, which is particularly important in the context of distance education to ensure that the learner feels connected both to the lecturer and the subject. This sense of connection facilitates learning. Various strategies can be employed to support learning: providing feedback on preparatory tasks (either by peers or the lecturer); delivering new information via written materials, video, or audio recordings; and engaging in collaborative learning based on the preparatory task (e.g. through webinars or asynchronous forum discussions). Peer discussions should be planned, with students being free to choose the environment in which these take place. Study pairs may also be formed for discussions. The results of these discussions should be submitted in the platform designated by the lecturer (e.g. Moodle). In addition to short written summaries, students may submit their discussions in audio format (with a predefined duration). The more frequent and smaller the interim tasks assigned to students, the better the lecturer’s overview of students’ progress. This also allows for monitoring whether and how learning is taking place.
To conclude and reinforce the topic, final assignments/(self-assessment) tests, discussion summaries and entries in the learning diary should be planned.
Providing timely feedback on students’ assignments was considered essential. In such an emergency situation, maintaining contact with the lecturer was particularly important to understand how the student was progressing in their learning. It was certainly advisable to discuss one’s plans with colleagues and/or the programme director, as this often enabled the integration of different assignments. Such coordination helped to keep the workload reasonable for both students and teaching staff. It was also crucial to inform students in a timely manner about any changes in the structure of teaching and new schedules.
The teaching and learning methods introduced during that time remain in use today. However, the key difference compared with the previous academic year is that distance learning is no longer the sole form of instruction.
At the Police and Border Guard College of the EASS, which operates under the Ministry of the Interior, the focus differs from that of the University of Tartu. Unlike the University of Tartu, where the primary emphasis lies on training legal professionals, the Police and Border Guard College trains future police officers capable of conducting pre-trial investigations. Consequently, the nature of instruction is considerably more practice-oriented.
Before the COVID period, teaching was conducted in classrooms, and practical sessions were held in subgroups. Initially, efforts were made to continue lectures and practical sessions in person, using masks and face shields to prevent infection. As the COVID wave intensified, lectures were moved online and delivered to subgroups, while practical sessions were put on hold. This caused certain delays in the completion of the curriculum. Theoretical content was covered online during the autumn term, and practical sessions took place in the spring. It became evident that the theoretical knowledge learned in the autumn had already been forgotten by spring. Lectures that had previously been conducted in person were now delivered online. The number of class hours did not decrease, but this format required students to engage more actively in self-directed learning (listening, reading independently).
On the positive side, it can be noted that future police officers learned to tolerate wearing a mask. While previously masks were used primarily during DNA sample collection, they were now able to work with a mask on during other stages of the crime scene investigation process as well.
The experience gained during the COVID-19 pandemic revealed the potential of online teaching, particularly with regard to the delivery of theoretical content. Emphasis has increasingly shifted to independent learning. Practical training sessions have been retained, allowing lecturers to assess the extent to which knowledge has been internalised. The prevailing view is that students must develop a genuine understanding of the material, with less focus on grades as an end in themselves. Moreover, the possibility of earlier feedback—through interim assessments—reduces the need to wait until the end of the course to evaluate student progress.
However, the ability to acquire theoretical knowledge via online instruction has led to a tendency among some students to avoid classroom attendance without valid justification. Unfortunately, physical presence in the classroom is essential, as certain sensitive teaching materials cannot be made available online. Given the large number of student groups and the possibility that instruction may extend into later hours, students residing in more distant regions are permitted to participate in web-based learning.
The teaching and learning methods proposed during the pandemic remain in use today. The key difference compared with the previous academic year is that distance learning is no longer the sole mode of instruction.
The teaching of criminalistics not only ensures that students acquire the practical skills necessary for working with evidence and organising criminal proceedings, but also fosters the development of a system of perspectives, convictions and principles essential for a conscious, creative and proactive approach to tasks related to crime control. Knowledge and skills must be integrated, particularly through the parallel teaching of theory alongside practical application.
In contemporary Estonia, criminalistics is taught at the Police and Border Guard College of the EASS, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn University and the Faculty of Law at the University of Tartu. Thus, there are currently four institutions of higher education in Estonia whose curricula include subjects in criminalistics.
As is evident, the number of institutions offering instruction in criminalistics has declined over the years. This is largely due to the closure of private universities that previously included criminalistics in their curricula.
It is worth noting that classical criminalistics is unfortunately no longer taught at the faculties of law at Tallinn University of Technology and Tallinn University, where the focus has shifted instead to digital and cyber criminalistics.
In today’s radically transformed informational and technological environment, the investigative and evidentiary methods of the previous century are no longer sufficient. In the context of informationally and technologically complex legal relations—which are the subject of investigation and evidence gathering—adequate solutions can only be achieved through the use of evidentiary information technologies that meet the modern tasks of criminalistics and legal proceedings.
The current training of legal professionals requires an integration of theory and practice (including seminars, practical classes, participation in procedural internships, etc.). Based on the above, it can be confirmed that all forms of teaching are currently applicable and in use; however, the key issue lies in their effectiveness (i.e. quality). If students are told that seminar participation is possible either in person or online, they will often opt for the online format for various reasons—such as convenience, more superficial preparation, fear of illness during in-person attendance or general discomfort. The so-called hybrid learning model is now widespread, where some students are present in the classroom while others participate remotely. In such cases, more active engagement is typically seen among those physically present. As a rule, students are also required to respond and participate during seminars, and successful seminar participation is a prerequisite for being allowed to take the final exam.
The authors identify a significant issue with hybrid learning, as students participating online tend to be less engaged in discussions. This is primarily due to the technical complexity for lecturers in managing a discussion simultaneously with students in the classroom and those attending remotely. Particularly challenging is the integration of online students into group work, as the lecturer can only be present with one group at a time and is unable to follow or guide other groups during that period. Such a setup does not support high-quality instruction in criminalistics.
The COVID-19 period introduced innovations into teaching, as instruction had to be conducted online to minimise physical contact and prevent infection. However, this posed a serious challenge and test for lecturers. They were required to acquire new skills in using interactive programmes and adapt their lectures for online presentation. Many lecturers and students would have preferred classroom-based teaching to benefit from immediate feedback. The pandemic period also affected the delivery of practical classes at the EASS (Sisekaitseakadeemia), as these inherently required physical presence.
Starting from the new academic year, the University of Tartu plans to reorganise the teaching of criminalistics, with the main focus intended to shift towards the organisation of expert examinations. However, it is questionable whether it is effective to teach the organisation of forensic examinations without a foundational knowledge of criminalistics, particularly its methodology.
The authors of this article, who graduated from the University of Tartu (then Tartu State University) at different times, recall how criminalistics was taught at the Faculty of Law. In the third year, students specialised in one of three tracks: civil, administrative or criminal law. In the criminal law track, students received comprehensive instruction in criminalistics and forensic sciences, including forensic psychiatry and forensic medicine.
At the same time, it must be acknowledged that in postWorld War II Estonia, criminalists have never been formally trained. Although the Social Sciences and Humanities Institute once conferred a criminalist qualification, the limited scope of the criminalistics coursework did not provide adequate preparation for the professional responsibilities of a criminalist. Today, although criminalistics is taught within the investigative training track at the EASS (Sisekaitseakadeemia), the programme is focused on preparing investigators rather than criminalists.
Prior to the restoration of Estonia’s independence, foundational knowledge in criminalistics was acquired at the University of Tartu’s Faculty of Law, after which candidates would proceed to specialised advanced courses in a particular branch of criminalistics. These included practical training in crime scene investigation, dactyloscopy and trace evidence analysis (traceology). The course concluded with an examination, the successful completion of which qualified the individual as a forensic criminalist.
In light of current curricula, course volumes and institutional approaches to the field, the authors assert that the present model is neither sufficient nor sustainable and does not ensure the continuity of criminalist training in Estonia. A viable solution would involve the development of a dedicated criminalist training programme, the formation of specialised study groups (comprising 10–15 students) and the provision of advanced or follow-up education.
Currently, officials performing the role of criminalists within the Estonian Police and Border Guard Board (PPA) participate in short-term training days and weeks—for instance, focused on the analysis of bloodstain patterns. Some of these sessions have been conducted with the involvement of colleagues from Sweden, the Netherlands and Finland. While these are informative and broaden participants’ perspectives, they do not constitute a comprehensive or systematic education in the field.
The work of a criminalist and its outcomes lie at the very heart of criminal proceedings. Such work cannot be carried out to a high standard on the basis of inadequate education. Contemporary crime makes use of advanced technologies and methods, thereby presenting a clear imperative to elevate the training of criminalists to a qualitatively new level.
Given that the national demand for criminalists is relatively low, high-quality training for even a small number of professionals is costly. It would require the establishment of dedicated educational infrastructure and the recruitment of qualified international lecturers. Despite the significant investment required, such an initiative is essential for ensuring internal security, especially in light of the cross-border nature of modern crime.
Therefore, the issue remains highly relevant and calls for an effective and sustainable resolution.