Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
![Comparison of bending deflection of the test wing, normal to wing planform, computed using the present method with results of Ref. [25]. RBF, radial basis functions; URANS, unsteady Navier-Stokes equations.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6573040e79f7550bc9e9ea22/j_tar-2023-0023_fig_013.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKOXFNUJ25%2F20260126%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260126T193903Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEHoaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJGMEQCICKfZNQ07RAL4mk%2B7BtZFf0Oq%2FOKe5IHcX5gfkYMDSlVAiAcrPP7KGcVj5JDpWiKw2RkjC2A7nKO%2BkZFPun4VVB83iq9BQhDEAIaDDk2MzEzNDI4OTk0MCIMBMS99A0nyFhIC9%2BcKpoFeTJz3RLbJDYTYKV8n7zmkwaIG970rFhBYVbn6EG1ubRDm7oZHcU6B%2B77z7sTACZIRyx5hPyd6L7SyHZOj896v1QXwB4b5ZfLyEMNWvbVjPLlkI6RrYyVYWa5r39Kekz1V6R9L03CIq99CSzzKReb%2Bftn6Jovzx7Gq7%2BimWR5vggH2TlQY1RQJ0NY46j4wPUmIP7U7Q0A7syZoCNWPT%2FlxR6fxM8%2Fvi8ZcfrGRH66%2F4UXE6FmejCfaInLO7hIjilO8kBogfLHZxZxuhq9lJIoUuPKtIxS96xcgCt32n8bi5rGMTmTMVEcHbGc6KFXT%2F7r8zCZrgBRmaD%2FIcMZCgCUthMOUZe2TWByp%2Bzfa%2FwIODbzwiRwXpYRvRDc5z0rR7GrkZg9QEi2hv57txu4UbSJc9jKd0VGg8OUgzfzxfc%2BNnc%2F4FQyLJiaUwTvIQ3O9AAY1lkdKDmj8oRWFhPSETg9OEU%2B3D1csrq6EQokaiOysrevEakgpuawaVqEYQn1dfbBldQG4iJKE7%2BUlaPVFKT8Z8JGnZRTM1szpdh%2FTQDTtH25hgxGBmV1DKCODpstddzsay7dMzTNyEdo9DhWs9lr8Ef%2FgxKCaVVlzZsJoI5CWTjM3BC4uIaVf3MRZWJRApCPZtWr85kbu0HGePDdpC3taIrd9ztIBncB6Kkx8D1qD1hX21MOPmicJSg4tU3R7fBk4kVehBGd95Kk1FVTQlO0AgCGRvsfCQsLW%2BfVTVSjc4dMK7NbSuFYuY0LFhCn00qeHqJIrVniBbecEHktV50TV%2FMeSK3AaUQdzVbC%2BNmAq5%2BrO5bdhDFW%2FGfgwFlQ5LezjsQ4SAGnBqAA8HZBNHNYDspwI4mrQ5Av97SCnd%2FM%2BXohik0UTOIF7X2wMI3W3ssGOrIB0CuUkdGGpajMl4yfIP9di2sBMuuyURSU%2BIJ7PisFETT6LdrP9d%2B9xlKHhyS%2FI6%2FSIQAMm5ov9CWAIGOD6cP1P5weGssLNmSuDV27uTBjcMVXOr4l1fLSKfzjD8ebQyxuGeDtQjjyyoUdhnxWxKXCFxeLrBaSAiKWav%2FHYTeOkVcao%2BdAKIFpktR6%2FtDKOm9GIaHbvWYUbqwZuj7uvkUiX0TkStaJ7DUHnMBuVPhRKibbXw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=ddd41da6383e64a26d093cab40b29ddb01acd1744c87155a2f3b4b11d2d910e5&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 14.
![Comparison of twist of the test wing, computed using the present method with results of Ref. [25]. RBF, radial basis functions; URANS, unsteady Navier-Stokes equations.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6573040e79f7550bc9e9ea22/j_tar-2023-0023_fig_014.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKOXFNUJ25%2F20260126%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260126T193903Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEHoaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJGMEQCICKfZNQ07RAL4mk%2B7BtZFf0Oq%2FOKe5IHcX5gfkYMDSlVAiAcrPP7KGcVj5JDpWiKw2RkjC2A7nKO%2BkZFPun4VVB83iq9BQhDEAIaDDk2MzEzNDI4OTk0MCIMBMS99A0nyFhIC9%2BcKpoFeTJz3RLbJDYTYKV8n7zmkwaIG970rFhBYVbn6EG1ubRDm7oZHcU6B%2B77z7sTACZIRyx5hPyd6L7SyHZOj896v1QXwB4b5ZfLyEMNWvbVjPLlkI6RrYyVYWa5r39Kekz1V6R9L03CIq99CSzzKReb%2Bftn6Jovzx7Gq7%2BimWR5vggH2TlQY1RQJ0NY46j4wPUmIP7U7Q0A7syZoCNWPT%2FlxR6fxM8%2Fvi8ZcfrGRH66%2F4UXE6FmejCfaInLO7hIjilO8kBogfLHZxZxuhq9lJIoUuPKtIxS96xcgCt32n8bi5rGMTmTMVEcHbGc6KFXT%2F7r8zCZrgBRmaD%2FIcMZCgCUthMOUZe2TWByp%2Bzfa%2FwIODbzwiRwXpYRvRDc5z0rR7GrkZg9QEi2hv57txu4UbSJc9jKd0VGg8OUgzfzxfc%2BNnc%2F4FQyLJiaUwTvIQ3O9AAY1lkdKDmj8oRWFhPSETg9OEU%2B3D1csrq6EQokaiOysrevEakgpuawaVqEYQn1dfbBldQG4iJKE7%2BUlaPVFKT8Z8JGnZRTM1szpdh%2FTQDTtH25hgxGBmV1DKCODpstddzsay7dMzTNyEdo9DhWs9lr8Ef%2FgxKCaVVlzZsJoI5CWTjM3BC4uIaVf3MRZWJRApCPZtWr85kbu0HGePDdpC3taIrd9ztIBncB6Kkx8D1qD1hX21MOPmicJSg4tU3R7fBk4kVehBGd95Kk1FVTQlO0AgCGRvsfCQsLW%2BfVTVSjc4dMK7NbSuFYuY0LFhCn00qeHqJIrVniBbecEHktV50TV%2FMeSK3AaUQdzVbC%2BNmAq5%2BrO5bdhDFW%2FGfgwFlQ5LezjsQ4SAGnBqAA8HZBNHNYDspwI4mrQ5Av97SCnd%2FM%2BXohik0UTOIF7X2wMI3W3ssGOrIB0CuUkdGGpajMl4yfIP9di2sBMuuyURSU%2BIJ7PisFETT6LdrP9d%2B9xlKHhyS%2FI6%2FSIQAMm5ov9CWAIGOD6cP1P5weGssLNmSuDV27uTBjcMVXOr4l1fLSKfzjD8ebQyxuGeDtQjjyyoUdhnxWxKXCFxeLrBaSAiKWav%2FHYTeOkVcao%2BdAKIFpktR6%2FtDKOm9GIaHbvWYUbqwZuj7uvkUiX0TkStaJ7DUHnMBuVPhRKibbXw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=c8a68409be843b5ac360914c184f20cc93faa12444ac8bbf33a7ce08c3d5552d&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 15.
![Comparison of distributions of non-dimensionalized normal force computed using the present method with results of [25]. RBF, radial basis functions; URANS, unsteady Navier-Stokes equations.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6573040e79f7550bc9e9ea22/j_tar-2023-0023_fig_015.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKOXFNUJ25%2F20260126%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260126T193903Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEHoaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJGMEQCICKfZNQ07RAL4mk%2B7BtZFf0Oq%2FOKe5IHcX5gfkYMDSlVAiAcrPP7KGcVj5JDpWiKw2RkjC2A7nKO%2BkZFPun4VVB83iq9BQhDEAIaDDk2MzEzNDI4OTk0MCIMBMS99A0nyFhIC9%2BcKpoFeTJz3RLbJDYTYKV8n7zmkwaIG970rFhBYVbn6EG1ubRDm7oZHcU6B%2B77z7sTACZIRyx5hPyd6L7SyHZOj896v1QXwB4b5ZfLyEMNWvbVjPLlkI6RrYyVYWa5r39Kekz1V6R9L03CIq99CSzzKReb%2Bftn6Jovzx7Gq7%2BimWR5vggH2TlQY1RQJ0NY46j4wPUmIP7U7Q0A7syZoCNWPT%2FlxR6fxM8%2Fvi8ZcfrGRH66%2F4UXE6FmejCfaInLO7hIjilO8kBogfLHZxZxuhq9lJIoUuPKtIxS96xcgCt32n8bi5rGMTmTMVEcHbGc6KFXT%2F7r8zCZrgBRmaD%2FIcMZCgCUthMOUZe2TWByp%2Bzfa%2FwIODbzwiRwXpYRvRDc5z0rR7GrkZg9QEi2hv57txu4UbSJc9jKd0VGg8OUgzfzxfc%2BNnc%2F4FQyLJiaUwTvIQ3O9AAY1lkdKDmj8oRWFhPSETg9OEU%2B3D1csrq6EQokaiOysrevEakgpuawaVqEYQn1dfbBldQG4iJKE7%2BUlaPVFKT8Z8JGnZRTM1szpdh%2FTQDTtH25hgxGBmV1DKCODpstddzsay7dMzTNyEdo9DhWs9lr8Ef%2FgxKCaVVlzZsJoI5CWTjM3BC4uIaVf3MRZWJRApCPZtWr85kbu0HGePDdpC3taIrd9ztIBncB6Kkx8D1qD1hX21MOPmicJSg4tU3R7fBk4kVehBGd95Kk1FVTQlO0AgCGRvsfCQsLW%2BfVTVSjc4dMK7NbSuFYuY0LFhCn00qeHqJIrVniBbecEHktV50TV%2FMeSK3AaUQdzVbC%2BNmAq5%2BrO5bdhDFW%2FGfgwFlQ5LezjsQ4SAGnBqAA8HZBNHNYDspwI4mrQ5Av97SCnd%2FM%2BXohik0UTOIF7X2wMI3W3ssGOrIB0CuUkdGGpajMl4yfIP9di2sBMuuyURSU%2BIJ7PisFETT6LdrP9d%2B9xlKHhyS%2FI6%2FSIQAMm5ov9CWAIGOD6cP1P5weGssLNmSuDV27uTBjcMVXOr4l1fLSKfzjD8ebQyxuGeDtQjjyyoUdhnxWxKXCFxeLrBaSAiKWav%2FHYTeOkVcao%2BdAKIFpktR6%2FtDKOm9GIaHbvWYUbqwZuj7uvkUiX0TkStaJ7DUHnMBuVPhRKibbXw%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=42d4470ddde66aa03f5586af4c8255dcf2990c4ae08cb4bcd497a4680bcb95c1&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 16.
Geometry and structural properties of the validation case wing [25]_
| Wing properties | Study value |
|---|---|
| Semi-span [m] | 16 |
| Chord [m] | 1 |
| Center of gravity | Mid-chord |
| Elastic axis | Mid-chord |
| Inertia about mid stiffness [Nm2] | 0.1 |
| Torsional stiffness [Nm2] | 1 × 104 |
| Bending stiffness [Nm2] | 2 × 104 |
| Edgewise stiffness [Nm2] | 5 × 106 |