Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

Figure 7.

Figure 8.

Figure 9.

Figure 10.

Figure 11.

Figure 12.

Figure 13.
![Comparison of bending deflection of the test wing, normal to wing planform, computed using the present method with results of Ref. [25]. RBF, radial basis functions; URANS, unsteady Navier-Stokes equations.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6573040e79f7550bc9e9ea22/j_tar-2023-0023_fig_013.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKLHY4KL76%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T143112Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjED0aDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIQCYg2%2FaDYGAmSmMG8358UrXyGI8R1oJJnja1ru4AdEEoQIgOROI1CbhsT7qCrCmuzfzdM%2BE3hHdg9aGE2E4h99pQcgqvQUIBhACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDOBpYPXuGYUOI8RKiyqaBZKEyapzJZuV4JoMZzkghiSOYbcM8uxCq2uZvHUo1WGS1BwqQBZLlivB3KALX3wjuY1WIoRyvet8plTMRBR65BWvELCzkUei6ZFV365tZR7wi3ukTpwIWb1x1Fy5KuVisXX8%2FkIMc6EfFOFC4ncaD5d1MpPFjihHUBHtm3RJ0nklHJsG2ZXb3vFqHPLTqm1vtVOAUe9DtKAr5wouB%2FLRK7CMlvaOM7tBBTVUsbk1NcW12XIPx6aZku0GJBDGZ34PP5amR5uFBrSK7lc3AIN0IboEHJVAhY6QrpCDSwW3rSTzQl4U%2F9ITdKadH4xd2lz6CWjM8%2B3xL5DX3JzXCfg1a%2BK3tgeflbXd5P8Hdfc2MZZY00tsBnmM4EHftwINMBm5JsSTRW6hyLy96jWLEH6lxl%2FmLfx0n8Jl%2BFpjd3NVw%2FSmMeb%2BkVOeyf4PufFNn%2FUjjBeyy0zTo0Vidk1br%2B0gZ712YABqtpvCH7H8UD7owTmNLBme4d3un2tU0bbCtfEvdXgft2YI6RvG2uKdOoZP1gfJ6U3C4E4MsyIgP93qBMtn0wW%2B%2BVkWfSMGFBSrKfxysie56vmxAP4darDT6JCGDqxckdmL5Mx4zb3U1Yp5W0FbQivg2CEaLkvVj6fjpmkVEoTLRHljeCzxqdoajTVB1z4eh0YHibNbXDKMx%2BN0%2FDEMLFdMJb0d8YRj7IXe%2Bmc4KYzQOp5%2FC3RpA1E5sfMvObWXIWaraeseek%2F82GUB7LRyGkqf7ammoDeBptMujzTYJm7HwmyNbvh7R9LRK7ZwrZUWtM2tsVtegWuMatSm4GVMm2TnusPGzWmDpIkA1cR65mPa2980mo%2BixRfbl%2BLzGPpw%2FWtl2BQa0aJQFUb4q%2BPGwKZtia3BtkhfLjCjxurNBjqxAdEIYmhbBvMfDglyrrOpFpZD2P2wgr9lPCh4lnW7EfUGib7uEcPcVM3i%2B3aYXbo3HVHB%2F7zAWfsfFGYs54aqyuCrwaIaEckls797Jdaw9EWSNe2FUS7OIO%2FEXFCqFk758Wj8hk7CrjuUzGuCF531bNamx%2BUXmnFCBswkF2ranuBZoRHLY0PK8%2BCFIutrhRZzyYbOo89XlOT2QwdhnOxxIi9kBmB0skFkUftopp0bKV3iyA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=eb72834db607f190b1bd4d6682b8e1a462b018b9b115c9ca1729cbeefe85c24f&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 14.
![Comparison of twist of the test wing, computed using the present method with results of Ref. [25]. RBF, radial basis functions; URANS, unsteady Navier-Stokes equations.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6573040e79f7550bc9e9ea22/j_tar-2023-0023_fig_014.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKLHY4KL76%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T143112Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjED0aDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIQCYg2%2FaDYGAmSmMG8358UrXyGI8R1oJJnja1ru4AdEEoQIgOROI1CbhsT7qCrCmuzfzdM%2BE3hHdg9aGE2E4h99pQcgqvQUIBhACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDOBpYPXuGYUOI8RKiyqaBZKEyapzJZuV4JoMZzkghiSOYbcM8uxCq2uZvHUo1WGS1BwqQBZLlivB3KALX3wjuY1WIoRyvet8plTMRBR65BWvELCzkUei6ZFV365tZR7wi3ukTpwIWb1x1Fy5KuVisXX8%2FkIMc6EfFOFC4ncaD5d1MpPFjihHUBHtm3RJ0nklHJsG2ZXb3vFqHPLTqm1vtVOAUe9DtKAr5wouB%2FLRK7CMlvaOM7tBBTVUsbk1NcW12XIPx6aZku0GJBDGZ34PP5amR5uFBrSK7lc3AIN0IboEHJVAhY6QrpCDSwW3rSTzQl4U%2F9ITdKadH4xd2lz6CWjM8%2B3xL5DX3JzXCfg1a%2BK3tgeflbXd5P8Hdfc2MZZY00tsBnmM4EHftwINMBm5JsSTRW6hyLy96jWLEH6lxl%2FmLfx0n8Jl%2BFpjd3NVw%2FSmMeb%2BkVOeyf4PufFNn%2FUjjBeyy0zTo0Vidk1br%2B0gZ712YABqtpvCH7H8UD7owTmNLBme4d3un2tU0bbCtfEvdXgft2YI6RvG2uKdOoZP1gfJ6U3C4E4MsyIgP93qBMtn0wW%2B%2BVkWfSMGFBSrKfxysie56vmxAP4darDT6JCGDqxckdmL5Mx4zb3U1Yp5W0FbQivg2CEaLkvVj6fjpmkVEoTLRHljeCzxqdoajTVB1z4eh0YHibNbXDKMx%2BN0%2FDEMLFdMJb0d8YRj7IXe%2Bmc4KYzQOp5%2FC3RpA1E5sfMvObWXIWaraeseek%2F82GUB7LRyGkqf7ammoDeBptMujzTYJm7HwmyNbvh7R9LRK7ZwrZUWtM2tsVtegWuMatSm4GVMm2TnusPGzWmDpIkA1cR65mPa2980mo%2BixRfbl%2BLzGPpw%2FWtl2BQa0aJQFUb4q%2BPGwKZtia3BtkhfLjCjxurNBjqxAdEIYmhbBvMfDglyrrOpFpZD2P2wgr9lPCh4lnW7EfUGib7uEcPcVM3i%2B3aYXbo3HVHB%2F7zAWfsfFGYs54aqyuCrwaIaEckls797Jdaw9EWSNe2FUS7OIO%2FEXFCqFk758Wj8hk7CrjuUzGuCF531bNamx%2BUXmnFCBswkF2ranuBZoRHLY0PK8%2BCFIutrhRZzyYbOo89XlOT2QwdhnOxxIi9kBmB0skFkUftopp0bKV3iyA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=38ac75deff7b52365aed19be40b2c309134bbcf181d21cefee40d4acd9300d19&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 15.
![Comparison of distributions of non-dimensionalized normal force computed using the present method with results of [25]. RBF, radial basis functions; URANS, unsteady Navier-Stokes equations.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6573040e79f7550bc9e9ea22/j_tar-2023-0023_fig_015.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKLHY4KL76%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T143112Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjED0aDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIQCYg2%2FaDYGAmSmMG8358UrXyGI8R1oJJnja1ru4AdEEoQIgOROI1CbhsT7qCrCmuzfzdM%2BE3hHdg9aGE2E4h99pQcgqvQUIBhACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDOBpYPXuGYUOI8RKiyqaBZKEyapzJZuV4JoMZzkghiSOYbcM8uxCq2uZvHUo1WGS1BwqQBZLlivB3KALX3wjuY1WIoRyvet8plTMRBR65BWvELCzkUei6ZFV365tZR7wi3ukTpwIWb1x1Fy5KuVisXX8%2FkIMc6EfFOFC4ncaD5d1MpPFjihHUBHtm3RJ0nklHJsG2ZXb3vFqHPLTqm1vtVOAUe9DtKAr5wouB%2FLRK7CMlvaOM7tBBTVUsbk1NcW12XIPx6aZku0GJBDGZ34PP5amR5uFBrSK7lc3AIN0IboEHJVAhY6QrpCDSwW3rSTzQl4U%2F9ITdKadH4xd2lz6CWjM8%2B3xL5DX3JzXCfg1a%2BK3tgeflbXd5P8Hdfc2MZZY00tsBnmM4EHftwINMBm5JsSTRW6hyLy96jWLEH6lxl%2FmLfx0n8Jl%2BFpjd3NVw%2FSmMeb%2BkVOeyf4PufFNn%2FUjjBeyy0zTo0Vidk1br%2B0gZ712YABqtpvCH7H8UD7owTmNLBme4d3un2tU0bbCtfEvdXgft2YI6RvG2uKdOoZP1gfJ6U3C4E4MsyIgP93qBMtn0wW%2B%2BVkWfSMGFBSrKfxysie56vmxAP4darDT6JCGDqxckdmL5Mx4zb3U1Yp5W0FbQivg2CEaLkvVj6fjpmkVEoTLRHljeCzxqdoajTVB1z4eh0YHibNbXDKMx%2BN0%2FDEMLFdMJb0d8YRj7IXe%2Bmc4KYzQOp5%2FC3RpA1E5sfMvObWXIWaraeseek%2F82GUB7LRyGkqf7ammoDeBptMujzTYJm7HwmyNbvh7R9LRK7ZwrZUWtM2tsVtegWuMatSm4GVMm2TnusPGzWmDpIkA1cR65mPa2980mo%2BixRfbl%2BLzGPpw%2FWtl2BQa0aJQFUb4q%2BPGwKZtia3BtkhfLjCjxurNBjqxAdEIYmhbBvMfDglyrrOpFpZD2P2wgr9lPCh4lnW7EfUGib7uEcPcVM3i%2B3aYXbo3HVHB%2F7zAWfsfFGYs54aqyuCrwaIaEckls797Jdaw9EWSNe2FUS7OIO%2FEXFCqFk758Wj8hk7CrjuUzGuCF531bNamx%2BUXmnFCBswkF2ranuBZoRHLY0PK8%2BCFIutrhRZzyYbOo89XlOT2QwdhnOxxIi9kBmB0skFkUftopp0bKV3iyA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=b9d8c4bd568d617f655da947a5f08232f50abb80f186354cd9483c03952074a0&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 16.

Geometry and structural properties of the validation case wing [25]_
| Wing properties | Study value |
|---|---|
| Semi-span [m] | 16 |
| Chord [m] | 1 |
| Center of gravity | Mid-chord |
| Elastic axis | Mid-chord |
| Inertia about mid stiffness [Nm2] | 0.1 |
| Torsional stiffness [Nm2] | 1 × 104 |
| Bending stiffness [Nm2] | 2 × 104 |
| Edgewise stiffness [Nm2] | 5 × 106 |