Table 1.
Anthropometric characteristics and disease states of athletes.
| Middle adolescents (14–17 years) | Late adolescents (18–21 years) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Female | Male | Female | Male | |
| Average height [cm] | 167.8±5.6 | 176.4±12.6 | 168.6±5.9 | 179.1±7.1 |
| Average body mass [kg] | 57.5±10 | 65.8±13 | 58.1±8.3 | 74.3±8.7 |
| Average BMI [kg/cm2] | 20.4±2.7 | 20.9±2.1 | 20.4±2.5 | 22.9±2.6 |
| Body fat [%] | 20.7±4.7 | 12.8±5.7 | 17.3±3.5 | 9.6±3.5 |
| FFMI [kg/cm2] | 16.1±1.8 | 18.1±1.7 | 16.5±1.1 | 20.4±2.4 |
| Chronic illness [number of athletes] | Asthma (5), Chronic gastritis (4), Hashimoto thyroiditis (2), Atopic dermatitis (1) | Asthma (5) Chronic gastritis (2) Gastro oesophageal reflux disease (1), Arterial hypertension (1), Atopic dermatitis (1) | ||
| Hours training per week [h] | 16.9±0.6 | 19.2±1.0 | ||
| Type of sport [number of athletes] | Anaerobic: acrobatics (1), skiing (1), sprint (4), gymnastics (1), wild water kayak (1), climbing (1) Aerobic: long distance running (4), biathlon (3), road cycling (1), mountain biking (1), mountain running (2), rowing (6), cross country skiing (3), triathlon (2) Aerobic-anaerobic: heptathlon (1), middle distance running (4), badminton (1), hockey (3), basketball (2), football (14), Nordic combine (1), short and middle-distance swimming (20), dance (1), handball (1), figure skating (1), tennis (4) | Anaerobic: skiing (1), snowboarding (1), triple jump (1) sprint (2), wild water kayak (4), climbing (2), ski jumping (4) Aerobic: long distance running (1), biathlon (4), rowing (2), cross country skiing (3), triathlon (1) Aerobic-anaerobic: heptathlon (1), Nordic combine (1), volleyball (1), short and middle-distance swimming (3), handball (1), tennis (1) | ||
Table 2.
Prevalence of RED-S-related health disorder.
| RED-S-related health disorders | Middle adolescents (14–17 years) | Late adolescents (18–21 years) | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Female | Male | Female | Male | |||||||||
| Y | N | Prev. | Y | N | Prev. | Y | N | Prev. | Y | N | Prev. | |
| Reproductive system | ||||||||||||
| Primary amenorrhea (F) | 3 | 43 | 6.5% | 0 | 15 | 0% | ||||||
| Secondary amenorrhea (F) | 13 | 33 | 28.2% | 5 | 10 | 35.7% | ||||||
| Other disorders (F) | 18 | 28 | 39.1% | 5 | 10 | 33.3% | ||||||
| Low testosterone (M) | 1 | 37 | 2.6% | 0 | 19 | 0% | ||||||
| Immunological system | ||||||||||||
| Several viral infections | 22 | 24 | 47.8% | 15 | 23 | 39.5% | 5 | 10 | 33.3% | 4 | 15 | 21.1% |
| Lymphopenia | 1 | 28 | 3.4% | 1 | 18 | 5.2% | 1 | 10 | 9.1% | 0 | 12 | 0% |
| Leukopenia | 3 | 26 | 10.3% | 1 | 19 | 5% | 2 | 10 | 16.7% | 1 | 11 | 8.3% |
| Skeletal system | ||||||||||||
| Stress fractures | 3 | 43 | 6.5% | 0 | 38 | 0% | 0 | 15 | 0% | 0 | 19 | 0% |
| Osteoporosis/Osteopenia | 3 | 43 | 6.5% | 0 | 38 | 0% | 0 | 15 | 0% | 0 | 19 | 0% |
| Endocrine system | ||||||||||||
| T3<3.1 pmol/l | 0 | 7 | 0% | 0 | 3 | 0% | 0 | 2 | 0% | 0 | 1 | 0% |
| T4<12 pmol/l | 0 | 7 | 0% | 1 | 2 | 33.3% | 1 | 1 | 50% | 1 | 0 | 100% |
| Glucose<4 mmol/l | 1 | 18 | 5.2% | 0 | 16 | 0% | 1 | 7 | 12.5% | 1 | 10 | 9.1% |
| TSH < 0.5 mU/l | 0 | 9 | 0% | 0 | 5 | 0% | 0 | 2 | 0% | 0 | 1 | 0% |
| TSH>4.3 mU/l | 2 | 7 | 22.2% | 0 | 5 | 0% | 0 | 2 | 0% | 0 | 1 | 0% |
| Haematological system | ||||||||||||
| Ferritin<30 µg/l | 7 | 21 | 25% | 3 | 16 | 15.8% | 2 | 7 | 22.2% | 1 | 11 | 8.3% |
| Iron<10µmol/l | 2 | 24 | 7.7% | 2 | 15 | 11.7% | 1 | 9 | 10% | 0 | 12 | 0% |
| Haemoglobin < 120 g/l | 0 | 30 | 0% | 0 | 20 | 0% | 0 | 12 | 0% | 0 | 12 | 0% |
| Psychological disorders | ||||||||||||
| Eating disorders | 7 | 39 | 15.2% | 1 | 37 | 2.6% | 3 | 12 | 20% | 0 | 19 | 0% |
| Disordered eating | 30 | 16 | 65.2% | 12 | 21 | 44.7% | 7 | 8 | 46.7% | 7 | 12 | 36.8% |
| Psychological problems | 29 | 17 | 63.0% | 8 | 29 | 21.6% | 6 | 9 | 40% | 1 | 18 | 5.3% |
| Cardiovascular system | ||||||||||||
| Cholesterol<4 mmol/l | 7 | 14 | 33.3% | 8 | 9 | 47.1% | 3 | 3 | 50% | 3 | 8 | 27.3% |
| Cholesterol >5.2 mmol/l | 1 | 20 | 4.8% | 0 | 17 | 0% | 2 | 4 | 33.3% | 2 | 9 | 18.2% |
| HDL-cholesterol<1.45 mmol/l | 2 | 6 | 25% | 3 | 6 | 33.3% | 1 | 2 | 33.3% | 0 | 2 | 0% |
| LDL-cholesterol>2.59 mmol/l | 3 | 5 | 37.5% | 4 | 6 | 40% | 1 | 2 | 33.3% | 1 | 1 | 50% |
| Triglycerides>2.62 mmol/l | 0 | 8 | 0% | 0 | 8 | 0% | 0 | 3 | 0% | 0 | 2 | 0% |
| Gastrointestinal system | ||||||||||||
| Gastrointestinal disorders | 13 | 33 | 28.2% | 0 | 38 | 0% | 3 | 12 | 20% | 3 | 16 | 15.8% |
| Digestion disorders (gastritis, constipation, diarrhoea, gastroesophageal reflux) | 4 | 42 | 8.7% | 0 | 38 | 0% | 1 | 14 | 6.7% | 1 | 18 | 5.3% |
| Growth and development disorders | ||||||||||||
| Growth disorders | 4 | 42 | 8.7% | 6 | 32 | 15.8% | 1 | 14 | 6.7% | 0 | 19 | 0% |
| RED-S-related performance problems | ||||||||||||
| Problems in training process | ||||||||||||
| Tiredness | 35 | 11 | 76.1% | 24 | 14 | 63.2% | 12 | 3 | 80% | 13 | 6 | 68.4% |
| Muscle cramps | 8 | 38 | 17.4% | 13 | 25 | 34.2% | 1 | 14 | 6.7% | 8 | 11 | 42.1% |
| Other problems (Concentration, coordination, strength…) | 33 | 13 | 71.7% | 21 | 17 | 55% | 10 | 5 | 66.7% | 12 | 7 | 63.2% |
| Other problems | ||||||||||||
| Recurring injury | 13 | 33 | 28.2% | 3 | 35 | 7.9% | 1 | 14 | 6.7% | 5 | 14 | 26.3% |
| Maintaining focus | 18 | 28 | 39.1% | 5 | 33 | 13.2% | 2 | 13 | 13.3% | 0 | 19 | 0% |
Figure 1.
Distribution of number of RED-S-related health disorders and performance problems.
Figure 2.
Distribution of number of RED-S-related health disorders.
Figure 3.
Distribution of number of RED-S-related performance problems.
Table 2.
Number of RED-S-related health disorders and performance problems in nutrition-related risk factors. Rows in the first column are the potential nutrition-related risk factors, and the numbers in the following columns are the numbers of RED-s related (with standard deviation) in athletes that have the particular nutritional risk (YES column) or don’t have this risk (NO column).
| Comparison by gender | Comparison by age group | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Female | Male | Middle Adolescents (14–17 year) | Late Adolescents (18–21 year) | |||||||||||
| Yes | No | p-value | Yes | No | p-value | Yes | No | p-value | Yes | No | p-value | Yes | No | p-value | |
| CHO< 3g/kg body mass | 4.2±1.9 | 3.3±2.0 | 0.05 | 4.9±2.0 | 4.2±2.0 | 0.20 | 3.0±0.8 | 2.6±1.6 | 0.32 | 4.6±1.8 | 3.5±1.9 | 0.02 | 2.2±1.0 | 3.0±2.0 | 0.50 |
| CHO<6g/kg body mass | 3.6±2.0 | 3.2±1.9 | 0.32 | 4.4±2.0 | 3.9±2.1 | 0.43 | 2.6±1.3 | 2.8±1.8 | 0.51 | 4.0±2.0 | 3.1±1.7 | 0.09 | 2.8±1.7 | 3.2±2.5 | 0.70 |
| Dietary fibre intake>35 g | 4.0±2.1 | 3.5±1.9 | 0.40 | 4.5±2.2 | 4.3±2.0 | 0.76 | 2.7±1.5 | 2.6±1.5 | 0.90 | 4.6±1.8 | 3.7±1.9 | 0.17 | 2.3±2.3 | 3.0±1.9 | 0.58 |
| LEA | 3.5±2.0 | 3.7±1.8 | 0.45 | 4.4±2.1 | 4.0±1.9 | 0.48 | 2.4±1.3 | 3.5±1.7 | 0.03 | 3.9±2.0 | 3.5±1.7 | 0.56 | 2.6±1.8 | 5.0±1.8 | 0.03 |
| Desire to lose body weight | 4.6±1.8 | 3.3±1.9 | 0.002 | 5.8±1.4 | 4.0±2.0 | 0.006 | 3.5±1.4 | 2.4±1.4 | 0.02 | 5.2±1.8 | 2.4±1.4 | 0.003 | 3.8±1.7 | 2.7±1.9 | 0.13 |
| Lost weight in past year | 4.6±1.8 | 3.3±1.9 | 0.002 | 5.8±1.4 | 4.0±2.0 | 0.006 | 3.5 ± 1.4 | 2.4±1.4 | 0.02 | 5.2±1.8 | 2.4±1.4 | 0.003 | 3.8±1.7 | 2.7±1.9 | 0.13 |
| Meal 2–3h before training | 3.5±2.0 | 5.5±0.7 | 0.09 | 4.3±2.0 | 5.5±0.7 | 0.26 | 2.6 ± 1.5 | / | / | 2.8±1.9 | 5.0 | 0.19 | 3.7±1.9 | 6.0 | 0.25 |
| Meal 1h before training | 3.3±1.9 | 4.5±1.9 | 0.01 | 4.2±2.0 | 4.8±2.1 | 0.18 | 2.5 ± 1.5 | 3.7±1.3 | 0.03 | 3.5±1.9 | 4.9±1.7 | 0.005 | 2.9±1.9 | 2.8±1.9 | 0.96 |
| Meal after training | 3.4±2.0 | 4.5±0.9 | 0.05 | 4.3±2.1 | 4.5±0.6 | 0.84 | 2.5 ± 1.4 | 4.5±1.3 | 0.01 | 3.7±2.0 | 4.6±1.0 | 0.10 | 2.9±1.9 | 4.0 | 0.54 |
| Have suitable meal before, during and after training | 3.4±1.8 | 3.6±2.0 | 0.81 | 4.2±1.6 | 4.4±2.2 | 0.63 | 2.3± 1.5 | 2.7±1.5 | 0.40 | 3.5±2.0 | 3.8±1.9 | 0.46 | 3.2±1.4 | 2.8±2.1 | 0.47 |
| Takes dietary supplements | 3.6±2.0 | 3.3±1.9 | 0.48 | 4.5±2.1 | 4.0±1.9 | 0.38 | 2.6 ± 1.3 | 2.7±1.8 | 0.97 | 3.9±2.0 | 3.5±1.9 | 0.45 | 3.0±1.8 | 2.8±2.2 | 0.68 |