Selected socio-economic factors and adverse childhood experiences in students from Romania and Montenegro (n=3,283)_
| Factor group/factor | Category | N(%) |
|---|---|---|
| SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS | ||
| Gender | Females | 1,899(57.8%) |
| Males | 1,384(42.2%) | |
| Age (years) | 18–19 | 1,167(35.5%) |
| 20–21 | 1,084(33.0%) | |
| 22–23 | 666(20.3%) | |
| 24–29 | 366(11.1%) | |
| Mother’s education | No school/elementary/some high school | 620(19.0%) |
| Completed high school | 1,539(47.2%) | |
| Some college/high school/university or more | 1,102(33.8%) | |
| Father’s education | No school/elementary/some high school | 653(20.0%) |
| Completed high school | 1,362(41.8%) | |
| Some college/high school/university or more | 1,246(38.2%) | |
| Mother’s employment status | Employed | 2,363(73.2%) |
| Unemployed | 865(26.8%) | |
| Father’s employment status | Employed | 2,688(85.5%) |
| Unemployed | 457(14.5%) | |
| ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES | ||
| • CHILD MALTREATMENT GROUP EXPERIENCES | ||
| Physical neglect experiences | 99(3.1%) | |
| Frequently* didn’t have enough to eat | Yes | 50(1.5%) |
| Frequently had to wear dirty clothes | Yes | |
| Frequently no person to take to the doctor if necessary | Yes | 172(5.4%) |
| Physical abuse experiences | ||
| Frequently being pushed, grabbed, etc., by somebody | Yes | 104(3.4%) |
| Frequently being hit so hard to have marks or being injured | Yes | 419(13.7%) |
| Frequently being spanked | Yes | 1,120(34.6%) |
| Emotional neglect experiences | ||
| Frequently felt not loved | Yes | 163(5.1%) |
| Frequently parents wished had never been born | Yes | 120(3.7%) |
| Frequently being hated by someone in the family | Yes | 271(8.4%) |
| Emotional abuse experiences | ||
| Frequently being sworn at, insulted, or put down | Yes | 180(5.8%) |
| Frequently being afraid that might be physically hurt | Yes | 114(3.7%) |
| Frequently being called “lazy” or “ugly” | Yes | 280(8.7%) |
| Sexual abuse experiences | ||
| Experienced an attempt of or actual sexual intercourse | Yes | 128(4.4%) |
| • HOUSEHOLD DYSFUNCTION GROUP EXPERIENCES | ||
| Substance abuse by household member experiences | ||
| Lived with a problematic drinker or alcoholic | Yes | 556(17.2%) |
| Lived with someone who used street drugs | Yes | 93(2.9%) |
| Mental health problems of household member experiences | ||
| Lived with somebody depressed or mentally ill | Yes | 257(7.9%) |
| Experienced a suicide attempt in the household | Yes | 133(4.1%) |
| Violence against mother experiences | ||
| Frequently experienced pushing, grabbing, slapping mother, etc. | Yes | 111(3.4%) |
| Frequently experienced kicking, biting, hitting mother | Yes | 192(6.0%) |
| Frequently experienced repeated hitting of mother | Yes | 236(7.4%) |
| Frequently experienced threatening mother | Yes | 119(3.7%) |
| Family separation experiences | ||
| Family status | Primary family complete | 2,763(85.6%) |
| Parents divorced, no new partners | 286(8.9%) | |
| Parents divorced, stepfather | 118(3.7%) | |
| Parents divorced, stepmother | 26(0.8%) | |
| Parents divorced, stepfather and stepmother | 14(0.4%) | |
| Foster family | 20(0.6%) | |
| Criminal behaviour by household member experiences | ||
| Experienced an incarceration of household member | Yes | 154(4.7%) |
| Experienced a commitment of a crime by household member | Yes | 82(2.5%) |
Prevalence of alcohol use (as %), in students from Romania and Montenegro (n=3,283), along with results of univariate analysis of relationship between alcohol use and risk factors_
| Factor | Category | Prevalence | OR (95% CI limits for OR) | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES | ||||
| • CHILD MALTREATMENT GROUP | ||||
| Physical neglect experiences | ||||
| Frequently* did not have enough to eat | No (RC) | 78.9% | ||
| Yes | 80.6% | 1.12(0.67–1.85) | 0.675 | |
| Frequently had to wear dirty clothes | No (RC) | 78.7% | ||
| Yes | 84.0% | 1.42(0.66–3.04) | 0.364 | |
| Frequently not present to take to the doctor if necessary | No (RC) | 79.0% | ||
| Yes | 76.0% | 0.84(0.59-1.21) | 0.350 | |
| Physical abuse experiences | ||||
| Frequently being pushed, grabbed, etc., by somebody | No (RC) | 79.2% | ||
| Yes | 90.2% | 2.42(1.25–4.67) | 0.009 | |
| Frequently being hit so hard to have marks or being injured | No (RC) | 78.6% | ||
| Yes | 86.0% | 1.67(1.25–2.24) | 0.001 | |
| Frequently being spanked | No (RC) | 75.9% | ||
| Yes | 84.3% | 1.71(1.42–2.07) | <0.001 | |
| Emotional neglect experiences | ||||
| Frequently felt not loved | No (RC) | 78.5% | ||
| Yes | 83.2% | 1.36(0.89–2.07) | 0.157 | |
| Frequently parents wished had never been born | No (RC) | 78.6% | ||
| Yes | 82.4% | 1.27(0.79–2.05) | 0.326 | |
| Frequently being hated by someone in the family | No (RC) | 78.1% | ||
| Yes | 85.3% | 1.63(1.15–2.32) | 0.006 | |
| Emotional abuse experiences | ||||
| Frequently being sworn at, insulted, or put down | No (RC) | 78.9% | ||
| Yes | 88.1% | 1.99(1.25–3.16) | 0.004 | |
| Frequently being afraid that might be physically hurt | No (RC) | 79.2% | ||
| Yes | 90.2% | 2.41(1.29–4.52) | 0.006 | |
| Frequently being called “lazy” or “ugly” | No (RC) | 78.3% | ||
| Yes | 83.8% | 1.43(1.03–1.99) | 0.035 | |
| Sexual abuse experiences | ||||
| Experienced an attempt of or actual sexual intercourse | No (RC) | 78.7% | ||
| Yes | 85.0% | 1.56(0.95–2.56) | 0.080 | |
| • HOUSEHOLD DYSFUNCTION GROUP | ||||
| Substance abuse by household member | ||||
| Lived with a problematic drinker or alcoholic | No (RC) | 77.2% | ||
| Yes | 87.5% | 2.06(1.57–2.69) | <0.001 | |
| Lived with someone who used street drugs | No (RC) | 78.5% | ||
| Yes | 88.0% | 2.01(1.07–3.78) | 0.031 | |
| Mental health problems of household member | ||||
| Lived with somebody depressed or mentally ill | No (RC) | 77.9% | ||
| Yes | 88.6% | 2.21(1.48–3.28) | <0.001 | |
| Experienced a suicide attempt in the household | No (RC) | 78.4% | ||
| Yes | 87.0% | 1.85(1.10–3.10) | 0.020 | |
| Violence against mother | ||||
| Frequently experienced pushing, grabbing, slapping mother, etc. | No (RC) | 78.4% | ||
| Yes | 86.9% | 1.83(1.04–3.23) | 0.038 | |
| Frequently experienced kicking, biting, hitting mother | No (RC) | 78.0% | ||
| Yes | 88.7% | 2.22(1.40–3.52) | 0.001 | |
| Frequently experienced repeated hitting of mother | No (RC) | 78.1% | ||
| Yes | 85.3% | 1.63(1.12–2.36) | 0.011 | |
| Frequently experienced threatening mother | No (RC) | 78.4% | ||
| Yes | 88.8% | 2.18(1.22–3.91) | 0.009 | |
| Family separation | Primary family complete (RC) | 77.3% | ||
| Family status | Parents divorced, no new partners | 86.6% | 1.91(1.34–2.71) | <0.001 |
| Parents divorced, stepfather | 90.5% | 2.81(1.50–5.26) | 0.001 | |
| Parents divorced, stepmother | 84.0% | 1.52(0.53–4.52) | 0.427 | |
| Parents divorced, stepfather and stepmother | 85.7% | 1.77(0.39–7.91) | 0.458 | |
| Foster family | 75.0% | 0.88(0.32–2.44) | 0.810 | |
| Criminal behaviour by household member | ||||
| Experienced an incarceration of a household member | No (RC) | 78.5% | ||
| Yes | 84.2% | 1.46(0.94–2.28) | 0.094 | |
| Experienced a commitment of a crime by a household member | No (RC) | 78.4% | ||
| Yes | 91.4% | 2.91(1.33–6.34) | 0.007 | |
| CONFOUNDING FACTORS | ||||
| Country | Romania (RC) | 86.6% | ||
| Montenegro | 69.6% | 0.35(0.30–0.42) | <0.001 | |
| Gender | Female (RC) | 71.8% | ||
| Male | 88.4% | 2.98(2.45–3.62) | <0.001 | |
| Age (years) | 18–19 (RC) | 68.9% | ||
| 20–21 | 83.1% | 2.00(1.25–3.20) | 0.004 | |
| 22–23 | 84.6% | 2.10(1.26–3.52) | 0.004 | |
| 24–29 | 87.2% | 1.25(0.61–2.53) | 0.541 | |
| Mother’s education | No school or elementary/some high school (RC) | 77.7% | ||
| Completed high school | 76.9% | 0.76(0.59–0.97) | 0.029 | |
| Some college or high school/university or more | 82.1% | 0.72(0.60–0.88) | 0.001 | |
| Father’s education | No school or elementary/some high school (RC) | 79.2% | ||
| Completed high school | 76.5% | 0.90(0.71–1.14) | 0.369 | |
| Some college or high school/university or more | 80.9% | 0.77(0.63–0.93) | 0.006 | |
| Mother’s employment status | Employed (RC) | 81.3% | ||
| Unemployed | 72.1% | 0.59(0.50–0.71) | <0.001 | |
| Father’s employment status | Employed (RC) | 78.7% | ||
| Unemployed | 81.4% | 1.19(0.92–1.53) | 0.191 |
Results of multiple stepwise logistic regression (Forward Selection Likelihood Ratio method) of relationship between use of alcohol and adverse childhood experiences adjusted to confounding factors in a sample of students from Romania and Montenegro (n=2,437)_
| Factor | Category | OR (95% CI limits for OR) | p |
|---|---|---|---|
| ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES | |||
| • CHILD MALTREATMENT GROUP | |||
| Frequently no person to take to the doctor if necessary | No (RC) | ||
| Yes | 0.58(0.35–0.95) | 0.031 | |
| Frequently being hit so hard to have marks or being injured | No (RC) | ||
| Yes | 1.68(1.12–2.52) | 0.012 | |
| Frequently being spanked | No (RC) | ||
| Yes | 1.38(1.07–1.77) | 0.012 | |
| • HOUSEHOLD DYSFUNCTION GROUP | |||
| Lived with a problematic drinker/alcoholic | No (RC) | ||
| Yes | 1.51(1.07–2.13) | 0.019 | |
| Lived with somebody depressed or mentally ill | No (RC) | ||
| Yes | 2.85(1.59–5.10) | <0.001 | |
| CONFOUNDING FACTORS | |||
| Country | Romania (RC) | ||
| Montenegro | 0.25(0.20–0.32) | <0.001 | |
| Gender | Males (RC) | ||
| Females | 0.28(0.22–0.36) | <0.001 | |
| Mother’s education | No school/elementary/some high school (RC) | ||
| Completed high school | 0.58(0.38–0.87) | 0.009 | |
| Some college/high school/university or more | 0.74(0.56–0.99) | 0.043 | |
| Father’s education | No school/elementary/some high school (RC) | ||
| Completed high school | 0.61(0.41–0.91) | 0.015 | |
| Some college/high school/university or more | 0.87(0.66–1.15) | 0.338 | |
| Mother’s employment status | Employed (RC) | ||
| Unemployed | 0.70(0.55-0.89) | 0.003 |