Have a personal or library account? Click to login
What Do Machine Learning Models Reveal About Housing Unaffordability in Europe? Implications for Housing Policy Cover

What Do Machine Learning Models Reveal About Housing Unaffordability in Europe? Implications for Housing Policy

Open Access
|Dec 2025

References

  1. ARNERIĆ, Josip; KIKEREC, Matej; SKOKO, Branimir. Trends and drivers of housing affordability in the EU: Insights from panel data analysis. Online. Croatian Review of Economic, Business and Social Statistics. vol. 10 (2024), No. 2, pp. 49-62. Available at: https://doi.org/10.62366/crebss.2024.2.004. [viewed 2025-03-10].
  2. BAHRAMOV, Fuad. Assessing housing affordability: Analysis of property tax systems in European countries. Online. The Annals of the University of Oradea. Economic Scientes. vol. 33 (2024), No.1, pp. 237-245. Available at: https://anale.steconomiceuoradea.ro/en/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/AUOES.July_.2024.27.pdf. [viewed 2025-03-10].
  3. BARRANCO, Ricardo; Chris JACOBS-CRISIONI and Sjoerdje VAN HEERDEN (2021). House price dynamics and affordability in the city of Amsterdam. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. ISBN 978-92-76-43360-6.
  4. BILJANOVSKA, Nina; Chenxu FU and Deniz IGAN. A new dataset on housing affordability. Online. SUERF Policy Brief, no. 768 (2024). Available at: https://www.suerf.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/f_74208afa67a707e43206c70ed62f5642_82135_suerf.pdf. [viewed 2025-03-10].
  5. CESARSKI, Maciej. Housing cost overburden rate of household and their types in Poland: 2007–2018. Online. Polityka Społeczna, vol. 558 (2020), No. 9, pp. 25-30. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.4280. [viewed 2025-02-15].
  6. COSTARELLI Igor (2025). Housing Costs Development in Italy: Implications for Tenure Inequalities. In: EGNER, Björn and Max-Christopher KRAPP (eds.).. Housing in Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, p. 1–12. ISBN 978-3-031-87266-2.
  7. EGNER, Björn and Max-Christopher KRAPP (2025). Introduction: Housing in Crisis Across Europe. In: EGNER, Björn and Max-Christopher KRAPP (eds.). Housing in Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-3-031-87266-2.
  8. ESPINOSA URIEL, Pablo; Patricia PELAYO-ROMERO, Maddalena MARTINI, Andreas A. JOBST, Eric BARTHALON, Nihal TEMUEGE and Christian JANSSEN. House of Cards? Perspectives on European Housing. Online. Social Science Research Network Working Paper, 1 Dec. 2022. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4686629. [viewed 2025-04-12].
  9. FRAGOSO JANUÁRIO João; Carlos OLIVEIRA CRUZ; Humberto VARUM and VÍTOR FARIA E SOUSA. Is housing becoming less affordable? A study of affordability in the Portuguese housing market. Property Management, vol. 41(2023), No. 5, pp. 698-728. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1108/PM-08-2022-0059. [viewed 2025-02-15].
  10. GENUER, Robin; Jean-Michel POGGI and Christine TULEAUMALOT (2010). Variable selection using random forests. Online. Pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 31, no. 14, pp. 2225–2236. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patrec.2010.03.014. [viewed 2025-01-14].
  11. GENUER, Robin and Jean-Michel POGGI. Random Forests with R. Online. Cham: Springer, 2020. Available at: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-030-56485-8.pdf. [viewed 2025-01-10].
  12. GENUER, Robin; Jean-Michel POGGI and Christine TULEAUMALOT (2022). VSURF: Variable Selection Using Random Forests. Online. R package version 1.2.0. Available at: https://doi.org/10.32614/CRAN.package.VSURF [viewed 2025-01-10].
  13. KIM, Yesuel and Youngchul KIM (2022). Explainable heat-related mortality with random forest and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) models. Online. Sustainable Cities and Society, vol. 79, article 103677. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103677 [viewed 2025-01-10].
  14. KUHN, Max (2008). Building Predictive Models in R Using the caret Package. Online. Journal of Statistical Software, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 1–26. Available at: https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v028.i05 [viewed 2025-01-10].
  15. LIAW, Andy and Matthew WIENER (2002). Classification and Regression by randomForest. Online. R News, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 18–22. Available at: https://CRAN.R-project.org/doc/Rnews/ [viewed 2025-01-10].
  16. MOLNAR, Christoph; Bernd BISCHL and Giuseppe CASALICCHIO (2018). iml: An R package for Interpretable Machine Learning. Online. Journal of Open Source Software (JOSS), vol. 3, no. 26, article 786. Available at: https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00786 [viewed 2025-01-10].
  17. MURĂRAŞU, Ioan-Cătălin and Răzvan BUJOR. The Energy Crisis as a Factor of Aggravating Poverty in Bulgaria and Romania. State’s Social Expenditures Evolution. Online. Romanian Economic Journal, vol. 25 (2022), No. 84, pp. 95-103. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24818/REJ/2022/84/08. [viewed 2025-03-10].
  18. RADIN, Ioannis. Assessing the problem of affordable housing in Greece. Online. Discover Cities, vol. 1 (2024), article No. 33. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44327-024-00037-z. [viewed 2025-02-15].
  19. R CORE TEAM (2025). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Online. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available at: https://www.R-project.org/ [viewed 2025-01-10].
  20. SABATINI, Francesca (2024). Urban Governance and the Housing Crisis: A Review and Research Agenda. Online. In: CALABRÒ, Francesco; Livia MADUREIRA, Francesco Carlo MORABITO and María José PIÑEIRA MANTIÑÁN (eds.). Networks, Markets & People 2024. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 1188. Springer, Cham, pp. 121–130. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-74716-8_12 [viewed 2025-04-12].
  21. SIMIONESCU, Mihaela. The status of immigrants on Italian labour market in the context of economic decline: Evidence from survey, macroeconomic and big data. Online. Economics, Management and Sustainability, 2021, vol. 6 (2021), No. 1, pp. 34-48. Available at: https://doi.org/10.14254/jems.2021.6-1.3. [viewed 2025-03-12].
  22. SLAVATA, David; Eva ARDIELLI and Marta MACIEJASZ. Comparison of Housing Affordability in Czech and Polish Regions. Online. Review of Economic Perspectives, vol. 24 (2024), No. 1, pp. 17-36. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2478/revecp-2024-0002. [viewed 2025-03-21].
  23. SLOWIKOWSKI, Kamil (2024). ggrepel: Automatically Position Non-Overlapping Text Labels with ‘ggplot2’. Online. R package version 0.9.6. Available at: https://doi.org/10.32614/CRAN.package.ggrepel [viewed 202-01-10].
  24. WICKHAM, Hadley (2016). ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. Online. New York: Springer-Verlag. Available at: https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org [viewed 2025-01-10].
  25. WICKHAM, Hadley; Romain FRANÇOIS, Lionel HENRY, Kirill MÜLLER and Davis VAUGHAN (2023). dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. Online. R package version 1.1.4. Available at: https://doi.org/10.32614/CRAN.package.dplyr [viewed 2025-01-10].
  26. WICKHAM, Hadley; Davis VAUGHAN and Matthias GIRLICH (2024). tidyr: Tidy Messy Data. Online. R package version 1.3.1. Available at: https://doi.org/10.32614/CRAN.package.tidyr [viewed 2025-01-10].
  27. WINTERS, Sien (2025). A Housing Crisis in Belgium: Perception or Reality? In: EGNER, Björn and Max-Christopher KRAPP (eds.). Housing in Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 13–30. ISBN 978-3-031-87266-2.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/sjce-2025-0026 | Journal eISSN: 1338-3973 | Journal ISSN: 1210-3896
Language: English
Page range: 42 - 53
Published on: Dec 26, 2025
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year

© 2025 Janka Zajacova, Beata Stehlikova, Maria Zubkova, published by Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.