FIGURE 1.
PRISMA flow chart of review search
TABLE 1.
Characteristics of the included studies.
| Continent | First author | Year | Design | Total sample | Setting | Age Group | ADHD, ODD & CD Diagnostic tool | Risk measures |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Europe | Bendiksen | 2020 | CO | 1195 | COM | 3.5 | PAPA | Perinatal maternal distress |
| Asia | Senol | 2017 | CR | 2045 | COM | 7-15 | T-DSM-IV-S | Socioeconomic status |
| Asia | Feng | 2020 | CR | 114 with AD 201 non Atopic | CLIN | 6-12 | SNAP-IV Teacher and Parent 26-ltem Rating Scale. | Atopic Dermatitis |
| Asia | Tajdini | 2019 | CC | 80 with Asthma 92 control | CLIN | 5-11 | DSM-IV CSI-4 | Asthma |
| Europe | Joelsson | 2016 | CC | 10.132 with ADHD 38.811 Control | CLIN | All Finnish singletons born between 1991 and 2005 | ADHD according to ICD-10 or ICD-9 ODD and CD according to ICD-10 | Prenatal maternal smoking |
| Europe | Mina | 2016 | CO | 112 | CLIN | 3-5 | Conners’ Hyperactivity Scale ESSENCE-Q SDQ CBCL | Prenatal exposure to very severe maternal obesity |
| North America | Van Lieshout | 2020 | CR | 2151 | COM | 12-17 | MINI-KID | Macrosomia |
| Asia | Lin | 2016 | CR | 2.896 | COM | 9-10 | Chinese version of the SNAP-26 questionnaire | Allergic diseases (atopic dermatitis, asthma, and allergic rhinitis) |
| North America | Marmorstein | 2016 | CR and longitudinal study | 144 | COM | 11.9 | Modified version of the CD Rating Scale ADHD CASI-4R | Energy drink and coffee consumption |
| North America | Robinson | 2019 | CO | 1.915 | COM | 7-8 | Parent/guardian report of diagnosis SDQ at 7 years Modified version of the VADPRS at 8 years | Maternal PCOS and hirsutism |
| North America | Schieve | 2016 | CR | 74.565 | COM | 3-17 | Parent/guardian report of diagnosis | Preterm birth and low birth weight |
1 CR: cross sectional; CO: cohort; CC: case control; COM: community; CLIN: clinical; CD: Conduct Disorder, CASI-4R: The Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory-4th edition, Revised, CBCL: Child Behavior Checklist; CSI-4: The Child Symptom lnventory-4 questionnaire; DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition; ESSENCE-Q: Early symptomatic syndrome eliciting neurodevelopmental clinical examination Questionnaire, ICD: International Classification of Diseases; MINI-KID: The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview for Children and Adolescents, PAPA; Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment, PCOS: Polycystic ovary syndrome; SDQ: Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, SNAP-IV: The Swanson, Nolan and Pelham IV Teacher and Parent 26-Item Rating Scale; T-DSM-IV-S: Turgay Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition Based Child and Adolescent Behavioural Disorders Screening and Rating Scale; VADPRS: Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Parent Rating Scale.
TABLE 2.
Results of the individual studies.
| First Author | Year | Arm of the study | Findings of the study | Quality of study |
| Bendiksen | 2020 | This research aims to evaluate the connections between prenatal and postnatal mother distress and pre-schooler symptoms of ADHD, ODD, CD, and anxiety, by time and gender. | Mid-gestational mother distress substantially raised the average number of child symptoms, which ranged 3.8% for ADHD-HI. The combination of high prenatal and postnatal mother distress ratings was linked with an elevated risk of child CD and ODD symptoms. | Good |
| Senol | 2017 | The objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of ADHD and other DBD, as well as their associations with sociodemographic variables, among schoolchildren aged 7 to 15 in Kayseri, Turkey. | The prevalence of DBDs were ADHD, 6.2%; CD, 14.4%; and ODD, 6.7%, among schoolchildren in Kayseri, Turkey. Compared to their peers, the prevalence of ADHD, CD and ODD were significantly higher among boys and children whose mothers were homemakers, as well as those from low-income and poorly educated families. | Good |
| Feng | 2020 | To evaluate the co-occurrence of symptoms of ADHD, ODD, and pertinent Atopic dermatitis (AD) risk factor, as well as their influence on the quality of life of Chinese school-aged children with AD. | AD patients were significantly more likely to exhibit ADHD symptoms and ODD symptoms than controls. In AD patients, the degree of itching and sleep loss was strongly connected with inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and oppositional defiance scores. AD patients with ADHD symptoms had substantially higher CDLQI scores than those without ADHD symptoms. | Good |
| Tajdini | 2019 | The purpose of this study is to examine the prevalence of ODD, ADHD, and CD in asthmatic children. | In total, 42.5% of those in the case group and 25% of those in the control group had ADHD, with a statistically significant difference. In addition, there was a statistically significant difference between the prevalence of ODD in the case and control groups, However, the incidence of CD was 10% and 10.9% in the case and control groups, respectively, with no statistically significant difference. | Good |
| Joelsson | 2016 | This research aims to evaluate the connection between prenatal exposure to maternal smoking and offspring with ADHD, as well as to determine if the smoking-ADHD correlations are greater when ADHD is accompanied by other neuropsychiatric comorbidities. | Adjusted for confounding factors, the risk for ADHD with or without comorbidity was significantly increased among offspring exposed to maternal smoking. Subjects with comorbid CD or ODD had a significantly stronger association with smoking exposure than those with only ADHD. | Good |
| Mina | 2016 | To explore the association between prenatal very severe maternal obesity and adverse neuropsychiatric outcomes in children. | Prenatal mother extreme obesity remained a substantial predictor of child neuropsychiatric issues across various scales, regardless of demographic variables, prenatal characteristics, and maternal contemporaneous anxiety and depression symptoms. | Good |
| Van Lieshout | 2020 | The purpose of this study was to explore links between macrosomia (birth weight > 4000 g) and teenage mental problems and also to investigate possible moderating effects of gender and socioeconomic disadvantage on teenage mental illness. | After controlling for confounders, adolescents born macrosomic exhibited increased chances of CD, ODD and ADHD. Moderation analyses found substantial interaction effects between gender and macrosomia in predicting ODD and ADHD. Males born macrosomic were more likely than females to be diagnosed with ODD and ADHD. Socioeconomic disadvantage multiplied the risk of ODD and ADHD posed by macrosomia. | Fair |
| Lin | 2016 | To investigate the connection between allergic diseases (Atopic dermatitis, asthma, and allergic rhinitis) and childhood behaviour disorders (ADHD and ODD). | Children with a history of atopic dermatitis, asthma or allergic rhinitis had a greater likelihood of developing ADHD and ODD. | Good |
| Marmorstein | 2016 | This study explored cross-sectional and longitudinal correlations between early adolescents’ energy drink intake and psychopathology. In addition, relationships between psychopathology and coffee use were investigated to determine whether the findings were exclusive to energy drinks or whether they also extended to another popular caffeinated beverage. | Cross-sectional relationships between caffeine intake and psychopathology symptoms:
Prospective correlations between caffeine intake and the development of psychopathology symptoms: Over the course of 16 months, the initial frequency of energy drink usage predicted increases in CD and ADHD inattentive symptoms. In contrast, there was no association between coffee intake and any increase or decrease in psychopathology.
Prospective correlations between changes in caffeine intake and psychopathology symptoms:
| Fair |
| Robinson | 2019 | To investigate the links between mother PCOS and hirsutism and offspring ADHD, anxiety, conduct disorder, and behavioural issues. | After controlling for confounders, the relationships between mother PCOS and offspring ADHD were positive although ambiguous. Maternal hirsutism was associated with an increased risk for children’s ADHD, CD, borderline emotional symptoms, peer relationship problems, and conduct problems. | Fair |
| Schieve | 2016 | To explore the impacts of preterm birth and low birth weight on subsequent Developmental disabilities including ADHD, BCD. | Summary PAFs for preterm birth and/or LBW were under 5% for ADHD and behavioural-conduct problems. | Fair |
1 ADHD = Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; ADHD-HI = ADHD hyperactive–impulsive; BCD= behavioural or conduct problems or disorder; CC = case-control; CD = Conduct Disorder, CDLQ1 = children’s dermatology life quality index; CLIN = clinical; CO = cohort; COM = community; CR = cross-sectional; ODD = Oppositional Defiant Disorder; PAFs = population attributable fractions; PCOS = Polycystic ovarian syndrome.
Quality of the study: The critical appraisal of the studies was performed using the Critical Appraisal skills programme (CASP) risk of bias. Studies were rated as poor (total score less than 4 points out of 11/12), fair (total score between 5 and 7 points out of 11/12), or good (total score between 8 and 11/12 points).