Air Pollution and Migration in European Cities

Vontroba, Jakub; Pakši, Daniel; Koňařík, Vojtěch

Air Pollution and Migration in European Cities

Review of Economic Perspectives

Volume 25 (2025): Issue 1 (March 2025)

By:

Jakub Vontroba, Daniel Pakši and Vojtěch Koňařík

Open Access

|Sep 2025

Figures & Tables

Estimations of basic models with interactions

	(1.1)	(1.2)	(1.3)	(1.4)	(1.5)	(1.6)
	Air qualitv (OS)	Air quality (HS)	Air quality (OD)	Air quality (HD)	PM₁₀	PM_2.5
Environmental variables	0.036*	0.075*	–0.039*	–0.033	–0.081**	–0.157**
Environmental variables	(0.020)	(0.042)	(0.020)	(0.021)	(0.037)	(0.078)
Models with interactions
	(1.1.2)	(1.2.2)	(1.3.2)	(1.4.2)	(1.5.2)	(1.6.2)
Environmental variables	0.042	0.090	–0.046*	–0.061**	–0.073	–0.122
Environmental variables	(0.027)	(0.061)	(0.026)	(0.030)	(0.057)	(0.138)
Dummy “East”	7.801**	7.473**	4.766	5.450**	5.612*	6.905
	(3.741)	(3.385)	(3.118)	(2.772)	(3.403)	(4.717)
Interactions “East” with envir. var.	–0.030	–0.085	0.034	0.073*	–0.002	–0.025
Interactions “East” with envir. var.	(0.041)	(0.085)	(0.040)	(0.043)	(0.081)	(0.172)
Country	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Observations	326	326	326	326	277	210
Overall R₂	0.3926	0.3902	0.3940	0.3932	0.3874	0.3697
	(1.1.4)	(1.2.4)	(1.3.4)	(1.4.4)	(1.5.4)	(1.6.4)
Environmental variables	0.024	0.062*	–0.028	–0.031	–0.063	–0.186**
Environmental variables	(0.024)	(0.037)	(0.023)	(0.029)	(0.042)	(0.087)
Dummy “Capital City”	–0.027	0.661	3.320	1.694	2.603	–0.082
Dummy “Capital City”	(1.746)	(1.299)	(2.731)	(1.631)	(2.541)	(3.287)
Interactions “Capital City” with envir. var.	0.036	0.084	–0.032	–0.009	–0.035	0.160
Interactions “Capital City” with envir. var.	(0.041)	(0.119)	(0.040)	(0.043)	(0.081)	(0.146)
Country	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Observations	326	326	326	326	277	210
Overall R₂	0.3829	0.3791	0.3843	0.3761	0.3809	0.3676
	(1.1.6)	(1.2.6)	(1.3.6)	(1.4.6)	(1.5.6)	(1.6.6)
Environmental variables	0.040	0.104**	–0.041*	–0.031	–0.079**	–0.147*
Environmental variables	(0.024)	(0.052)	(0.024)	(0.025)	(0.039)	(0.087)
Dummy “Seaside City”	–2.261	–1.540	–2.151	–1.611	0.217	–0.628
Dummy “Seaside City”	(2.044)	(1.373)	(2.031)	(1.314)	(3.201)	(3.077)
Interactions “Seaside City” with envir. var.	–0.001	–0.052	–0.004	–0.030	–0.120	–0.137
Interactions “Seaside City” with envir. var.	(0.039)	(0.074)	(0.038)	(0.043)	(0.123)	(0.201)
Country	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Observations	326	326	326	326	277	210
Overall R₂	0.3848	0.3806	0.3861	0.3795	0.3863	0.3655

Results of principal-component factors method

Factor	Eigenvalue	Difference	Proportion	Cumulative
Factor 1	4.11209	3.19448	0.5874	0.5874
Factor 2	0.91761	0.36585	0.1311	0.7185
Factor 3	0.55176	0.00439	0.0788	0.7974
Factor 4	0.54737	0.12792	0.0782	0.8755
Factor 5	0.41945	0.14956	0.0599	0.9355
Factor 6	0.26989	0.08805	0.0386	0.9740
Factor 7	0.18183	.	0.0260	1.0000

Results of factor analysis – rotated factor loadings (pattern matrix) and unique variances

Variable (OS)	Factor 1 (PS)	Uniqueness
Public transport	0.8136	0.3380
Health care services	0.6815	0.5355
Sport facilities	0.7868	0.3810
Cultural facilities	0.7813	0.3895
Green spaces	0.8772	0.2306
Cleanliness	0.7643	0.4158
Personal feeling of safety	0.6344	0.5975

Model estimations (dependent variable: the net migration per 1000 inhabitants in year t)

	(1.1)	(1.2)	(1.3)	(1.4)	(1.5)	(1.6)	(1.7)	(1.8)	(1.9)
	Air qualitv (OS)	Air quality (HS)	Air quality (OD)	Air quality (HD)	PM₁₀	PM_2.5	SO₂	NO₂	BaP
Environmental variables	0.036*	0.075*:	–0.039*	–0.033	–0.081**	–0.157**	0.175	–0.092	–0.722*
	(0.020)	(0.042)	(0.020)	(0.021)	(0.037)	(0.078)	(0.140)	(0.057)	(0.437)
Public services	0.656	0.791	0.616	0.806	1.394*	1.856	0.888	1.472**	1.691
	(0.633)	(0.625)	(0.638)	(0.661)	(0.789)	(1.145)	(0.852)	(0.748)	(1.202)
Labor market	0.147***	0.152***	0.148***	0.145***	0.126***	0.096***	0.153***	0.150***	0.108**
	(0.025)	(0.025)	(0.025)	(0.024)	(0.025)	(0.035)	(0.033)	(0.027)	(0.044)
Country	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Constant	1.382	1.961	4.968	3.810	6.028*	7.671*	1.168	5.931*	5.092
	(2.276)	(2.336)	(3.390)	(3.016)	(3.450)	(4.429)	(2.758)	(3.344)	(3.484)
Overall R²	0.3718	0.3673	0.3729	0.3661	0.3693	0.3539	0.3677	0.3646	0.4068
Observations	326	326	326	326	277	210	227	288	126
Number of cities	70	70	70	70	68	62	58	68	42

Multicollinearity test (VIF), dependent variable: the net migration per 1000 inhabitants in year t

	(1.1)	(1.2)	(1.3)	(1.4)	(1.5)	(1.6)	(1.7)	(1.8)	(1.9)
	Air quality (OS)	Air quality (HS)	Air quality (OD)	Air quality (HD)	PM₁₀	PM_2.5	SO₂	NO₂	BaP
Environmental variable	1.70	1.72	1.75	1.57	1.81	2.34	1.79	1.75	2.61
Public services	3.01	2.87	3.02	2.93	2.70	2.81	2.78	2.62	3.11
Labor market	1.76	1.84	1.76	1.73	1.75	1.83	1.78	1.88	1.87

Estimations of basic models with dummy variables

	(1.1)	(1.2)	(1.3)	(1.4)	(1.5)	(1.6)
	Air qualitv (OS)	Air quality (HS)	Air quality (OD)	Air quality (HD)	PM₁₀	PM_2.5
Environmental variables	0.036*	0.075*	–0.039*	–0.033	–0.081**	–0.157**
Environmental variables	(0.020)	(0.042)	(0.020)	(0.021)	(0.037)	(0.078)
Models with dummy variables
	(1.1.1)	(1.2.1)	(1.3.1)	(1.4.1)	(1.5.1)	(1.6.1)
Environmental variables	0.033	0.061	–0.036*	–0.031	–0.074**	–0.136*
Environmental variables	(0.020)	(0.043)	(0.020)	(0.021)	(0.037)	(0.081)
Dummy “East”	5.518*	5.228	5.501*	5.844**	5.566**	6.568
Dummy “East”	(2.924)	(3.449)	(2.935)	(2.793)	(2.828)	(4.577)
Country	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Observations	326	326	326	326	277	210
Overall R²	0.3884	0.3830	0.3894	0.3846	0.3875	0.3698
	(1.1.3)	(1.2.3)	(1.3.3)	(1.4.3)	(1.5.3)	(1.6.3)
Environmental variables	0.039*	0.084*	–0.042**	–0.036*	–0.072**	–0.143*
Environmental variables	(0.021)	(0.045)	(0.021)	(0.021)	(0.036)	(0.074)
Dummy “Capital City”	1.604	1.606	1.629	1.476	1.775	2.323
Dummy “Capital City”	(1.071)	(1.101)	(1.068)	(1.068)	(1.215)	(1.618)
Country	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Observations	326	326	326	326	277	210
Overall R₂	0.3834	0.3784	0.3848	0.3766	0.3815	0.3682
	(1.1.5)	(1.2.5)	(1.3.5)	(1.4.5)	(1.5.5)	(1.6.5)
Environmental variables	0.040**	0.086**	–0.043**	–0.038*	–0.102***	–0.177**
Environmental variables	(0.020)	(0.040)	(0.020)	(0.021)	(0.037)	(0.077)
Dummy “Seaside City”	–2.327***	–2.369***	–2.343***	–2.236***	–2.650***	–2.516**
Dummy “Seaside City”	(0.795)	(0.762)	(0.797)	(0.823)	(1.017)	(1.100)
Country	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Observations	326	326	326	326	277	210
Overall R₂	0.3848	0.3805	0.3860	0.3782	0.3862	0.3648

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/revecp-2025-0001 | Journal eISSN: 1804-1663 | Journal ISSN: 1213-2446

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Language: English

Page range: 1 - 14

Published on: Sep 8, 2025

Published by: Mendel University in Brno

In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

Publication frequency: 2 times per year

Keywords:

Related subjects:

Business and economics,

Political economics,

Economic theory, systems and structures

© 2025 Jakub Vontroba, Daniel Pakši, Vojtěch Koňařík, published by Mendel University in Brno
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.

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