Byzantine Roots of Muslim Jihad

The article explores some of the Byzantine roots of Muslim jihad. Particularly, it examines the phrase “to kill and be killed” in Sura 9:111 of the Qur’an, tracing its Christian predecessors, especially 6^th-century Byzantine texts that depict religious zeal leading to violence. The study highlights how Byzantine religious and political contexts, such as the violent enforcement of Chalcedonian orthodoxy, may have shaped early Islamic militancy. It suggests that early Islamic notions of jihad were in”uenced by pre-existing Byzantine ideas, demonstrating a complex interreligious exchange.