Table 1
Comparison of landuse area in Surakarta City in 2009 and 2019 (acc. to Statistical Bureau of Indonesia (Badan Pusat Statistik 2019).
| Landuse | Year | |
|---|---|---|
| 2009 [ha] | 2019 [ha] | |
| Settlement | 2809.64 | 2889.83 |
| Industrial building | 688.77 | 737.17 |
| City/public garden | 12.59 | 12.11 |
| Agricultural land | 136.56 | 86.63 |
| Shrubs | 257.74 | 237.14 |
| Mixed garden | 145.23 | 119.88 |
| Riparian | 46.62 | 46.62 |
| Bare land | 286.89 | 274.10 |
| Total | 4404.06 | 4404.06 |
Fig. 1
Several locations of landuse change in Surakarta City during 2009–2019.
Fig. 2
Landuse map in Surakarta City.
Fig. 3
Increasing trends of carbon dioxide emission form all sectors in Surakarta City (Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Indonesia 2016).
Fig. 4
Location of Surakarta City
Source: www.openstreetmap.org.
Table 2
Various types of vegetation in green open space in Surakarta City (acc. to Maridi et al. 2014).
| Number | Name of species | |
|---|---|---|
| Tree species | Lower crop species | |
| 1. | Albizia falcata | Ageratum conyzoides |
| 2. | Artocarpus altilis | Amaranthus spinosus |
| 3. | Artocarpus integra | Amorphophallus titanum |
| 4. | Cassia siamea | Canna edulis |
| 5. | Ficus ampelas | Chloris barbata |
| 6. | Hibiscus tiliaceus | Clitoria ternatea |
| 7. | Leucaena glauca | Elephantopus scaber |
| 8. | Morinda citrifolia | Eleusine indica |
| 9. | Muntingia calabura | Galinsoga parviflora |
| 10. | Samanea saman | Hyptis pectinata |
| 11. | Swietenia mahagoni | Imperata cylindrica |
| 12. | Tectona grandis | Kyllinga monocephala |
| 13. | Lantana camara | |
| 14. | Mimosa invisa | |
| 15. | Mimosa pudica | |
Fig. 5
Vegetation conditions in city/public garden and riparian.
Fig. 6
Comparison of vegetation types in agricultural land during (A) wet season and (B) dry season.
Table 3
Value of ɛmax based on Biomec-GCC classification (acc. to Running et al. (2000).
| Biomec-GCC classification | ɛmax value (gC−1 Mj−1) |
|---|---|
| EBF | 1.259 |
| ENF | 1.008 |
| DBF | 1.004 |
| DNF | 1.103 |
| Mixed forest | 1.116 |
| Woodland | 0.864 |
| Closed shrubland | 0.888 |
| Closed shrubland | 0.774 |
| Cropland | 0.604 |
| Wooded grassland | 0.768 |
| Grass | 0.604 |
[i] DBF – deciduous broadleaf forest; DNF – deciduous needleleaf forest; EBF – evergreen broadleaf forest; ENF – evergreen needleleaf forest.
Fig. 7
Annual value of net primary productivity (NPP) and carbon dioxide sequestration in Surakarta City.
Fig. 8
Distribution of annual net primary productivity (NPP) and carbon dioxide sequestration in Surakarta City.
Fig. 9
Temporal variation of net primary productivity (NPP) and climate condition in Surakarta City.
Fig. 10
(A) Temporal variation of carbon dioxide sequestration and (B) net primary productivity (NPP) in each district of Surakarta City.
Fig. 11
Spatiotemporal maps of net primary productivity (NPP) and carbon dioxide sequestration in Surakarta City.
Table 4
Comparison of net primary productivity (NPP) in several tropical climate areas.
| Area | NPP value (gC m−2 a−1) | Source | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Ketapang, Kalimantan Barat | 13.200 | Basuki et al. 2019 |
| 2. | Leuser, Aceh | 8.950.000 | Potter et al. 2013 |
| 3. | Berau, Kalimantan Timur | 10.300.000 | |
| 4. | Kamulo Doso, Papua New Guinea | 10.120.000 | |
| 5. | Merang, Sumatera Selatan | 10.790.000 | |
| 6. | Sulawesi | 8.400 | Hertel et al. 2009 |
Table 5
Comparison of net primary productivity (NPP) in several urban areas.
| Area | NPP value (gC m−2 a−1) | Source | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Anhui, China | 200 | Yang et al. 2020 |
| 2. | Nanjing, China | 250–300 | Zhou et al. 2015 |
| 3. | Laoning, China | 227–252 | Chen et al. 2017 |
| 4. | Guangzhou, China | 183 | Wu et al. 2020 |
| 5. | Guangdong, China | 384 | Jiang and Wu 2015 |
| 6. | Southern, United States | 231–269 | Milesi et al. 2003 |