Women in Sport Governance across Europe: Institutional and Socioeconomic Determinants of Leadership Representation
References
- Acker, J. (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations. Gender & Society, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/089124390004002002
- Acker, J. (2006). Inequality regimes: Gender, class, and race in organizations. Gender and Society, 20(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206289499
- Adriaanse, J. A., & Schofield, T. (2013). Analysing gender dynamics in sport governance: A new regimes-based approach. Sport Management Review, 16(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2013.01.006
- Amis, J., K. Munir, & J. Mair. (2017). Institutions and Economic Inequality. The SAGE Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism.
- Anne, D., & Moussi-Beylie, F. (2025). Discrimination in access to sports associations: the effects of gender, origin and income. Research in Economics, 79(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rie.2025.101053
- Bilimoria, D. (2006). The relationship between women corporate directors and women corporate officers. Journal of Managerial Issues, 18(1).
- Bird, S. R. (1996). Welcome to the men’s club homosociality and the maintenance of hegemonic masculinity. Gender and Society, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/089124396010002002
- Bluedorn, A., & Kanter, R. M. (1980). Men and Women of the Corporation. The British Journal of Sociology, 31(1). https://doi.org/10.2307/590086
- Boucher, C., & Lavoi, N. M. (2023). A Longitudinal Examination of Homologous Reproduction in Athletic Directors’ Hiring of Intercollegiate Head Coaches for Women Sports. International Sport Coaching Journal, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2022-0002
- Brieger, S. A., Francoeur, C., Welzel, C., & Ben-Amar, W. (2019). Empowering Women: The Role of Emancipative Forces in Board Gender Diversity. Journal of Business Ethics, 155(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3489-3
- Bryan, A., Pope, S., & Rankin-Wright, A. J. (2021). On the Periphery: Examining Women’s Exclusion From Core Leadership Roles in the “Extremely Gendered” Organization of Men’s Club Football in England. Gender and Society, 35(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/08912432211046318
- Burton, L. J. (2015). Underrepresentation of women in sport leadership: A review of research. In Sport Management Review (Vol. 18, Number 2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.02.004
- Burton, L. J., & LaVoi, N. M. (2011). Gender, leadership, and organizational change in spor. Journal of Sport Management.
- Chappell, L., & Waylen, G. (2013). Gender and the hidden life of institutions. Public Administration, 91(3). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9299.2012.02104.x
- Chelladurai, P. (2012). Leadership and Manifestations of Sport. In The Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199731763.013.0017
- Coakley, J., & Messner, M. A. (1993). Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity. Contemporary Sociology, 22(2). https://doi.org/10.2307/2075776
- Collinson, D. L. (2023). Critical dialectical perspectives on men, masculinities and leadership. In Routledge Handbook on Men, Masculinities and Organizations: Theories, Practices and Futures of Organizing. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003193579-11
- Connell, R. W. (2005). Change among the gatekeepers: Men, masculinities, and gender equality in the global arena. Signs, 30(3). https://doi.org/10.1086/427525
- Darvin, L., & Lubke, L. (2021). Assistant coach hiring trends: an updated investigation of homologous reproduction in intercollegiate women’s sport. Sports Coaching Review, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2020.1760001
- Eagly & Carli (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Harvard Business Press.
- Else-Quest, N. M., & Grabe, S. (2012). The Political Is Personal: Measurement and Application of Nation-Level Indicators of Gender Equity in Psychological Research. In Psychology of Women Quarterly (Vol. 36, Number 2). https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312441592
- Esteban Salvador, M. L., Fernandes, E. P., Di Cimbrini, T., Smith, C., & Güngör Göksu, G. (2024). Female chairs on the boards of European National Sports Federations: a comparative study. Gender in Management, 39(4), 497–515. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-10-2022-0328
- European Institute for Gender Equality. (2024a). Gender equality index. https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index
- European Institute for Gender Equality. (2024b). Gender Equality Index. https://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/dgs/indicator/index__index_scores/datatable
- European Institute for Gender Equality. (2024c). Women in sport key-decision making positions. https://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/dgs/indicator/wmidm_sp_eur__wmid_sp_eur_conf
- Eurostat. (2024a). GDP per Capita. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tipsna40/default/table?lang=en
- Eurostat. (2024b). Gender Pay Gap. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tipsna40/default/table?lang=en
- Eurostat. (2024c). Gini. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table? lang=en
- Eurostat. (2024d). Governmental sport expenditure.
- Fink, J. S. (2016). Hiding in plain sight: The embedded nature of sexism in sport. Journal of Sport Management, 30(1). https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2015-0278
- Forrest, P. R., & English, P. V. (2025). Women in Leadership and Organisational Change in Sport: A Critical and Intersectional Review. Frontiers of Contemporary Education, 6(1), p44. https://doi.org/10.22158/fce.v6n1p44
- Garcia-Blandon, J., Argilés-Bosch, J., & Ravenda, D. (2024). CEO demographics and gender diversity in senior management in large Scandinavian firms. Gender in Management, 39(1). https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-12-2021-0379
- González-García, H., Martinent, G., & Nicolas, M. (2021). Relationships between perceived coach leadership and athletes’ affective states experienced during competition. Journal of Sports Sciences, 39(5). https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1835236
- Granovetter, M. (1978). Threshold Models of Collective Behavior. American Journal of Sociology, 83(6). https://doi.org/10.1086/226707
- Grappendorf, H., & Henderson, A. C. (2008). Hegemonic Masculinity, Homosociality and Collaboration within the Field of Sport Management: Exploring the Issues. Advancing Women in Leadership, 26.
- Greenhill, J., Auld, C., Cuskelly, G., & Hooper, S. (2009). The impact of organisational factors on career pathways for female coaches. Sport Management Review, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2009.03.002
- Gyurcsik, N. C., Spink, K. S., Bray, S. R., Chad, K., & Kwan, M. (2006). An ecologically based examination of barriers to physical activity in students from grade seven through first-year university. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.06.007
- Hancock, M. G., & Greenwell, T. C. (2016). The Selection of a Sport Management Major: Factors Influencing Student Choice from a Consumer-Oriented Perspective. Sport Management Education Journal, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1123/smej.7.1.13
- Hancock, M. G., & Hums, M. A. (2016). A “leaky pipeline”?: Factors affecting the career development of senior-level female administrators in NCAA Division I athletic departments. Sport Management Review, 19(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2015.04.004
- Hargreaves, J. (2013). Heroines of sport: The politics of difference and identity. In Heroines of Sport: The Politics of Difference and Identity. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203466063
- Hastie, P. A. (1998). The participation and perceptions of girls within a unit of sport education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.17.2.157
- Hayhurst, L. M. C., Kay, T., & Chawansky, M. (2015). Beyond Sport for Development and Peace: Transnational perspectives on theory, policy and practice. In Beyond Sport for Development and Peace: Transnational perspectives on theory, policy and practice. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315751559
- Hindman, L. C., & Paulsen, R. J. (2024). Racial and gender inequality regimes in sport: occupational segregation and wage gaps in the U.S. spectator sports industry. European Sport Management Quarterly, 24(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2022.2128846
- Hindman, L. C., & Walker, N. A. (2024). The gendered organization of men’s professional sport. In Research Handbook on Gender and Diversity in Sport Management. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781802203691.00018
- Huang, A. X. (2025). Global sports governance: three decades of gender equality, diversity and inclusion policies and strategies in the Olympic movement. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-06-2025-0404
- Joecks, J., Pull, K., & Vetter, K. (2013). Gender Diversity in the Boardroom and Firm Performance: What Exactly Constitutes a “Critical Mass?” Journal of Business Ethics, 118(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1553-6
- Kastrup, V., & Kleindienst-Cachay, C. (2016). ‘Reflective co-education’ or male-oriented physical education? Teachers’ views about activities in co-educational PE classes at German secondary schools. Sport, Education and Society, 21(7). https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2014.984673
- Knoppers, A., de Haan, D., & Norman, L. and L. N. (2022). Late women coaches negotiating and resisting power in football. Gender, Work and Organization, 29(3), 880–896. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12790
- Knoppers, A., Meyer, B. B., Ewing, M. E., & Forrest, L. (2016). Gender Ratio and Social Interaction among College Coaches. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.10.3.256
- Knoppers, A., & Piggott, L. (2025). Male homosociality and the overrepresentation of men as leaders in sport organizations. In European Sport Management Quarterly. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2025.2594095
- Konrad, A. M., Kramer, V., & Erkut, S. (2008). Critical Mass:. The Impact of Three or More Women on Corporate Boards. Organizational Dynamics, 37(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2008.02.005
- Krook, M. L., & Mackay, F. (2011). Gender, Politics and Institutions: Towards a Feminist Perspective. In Palgrave Macmillan.
- Lee, W., & Cunningham, G. B. (2019). Group diversity’s influence on sport teams and organizations: a meta-analytic examination and identification of key moderators. European Sport Management Quarterly, 19(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2018.1478440
- Lesch, L., Kerwin, S., Thormann, T. F., & Wicker, P. (2022). Critical Masses and Gender Diversity in Voluntary Sport Leadership: The Role of Economic and Social State-Level Factors. Sustainability (Switzerland), 14(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106208
- Lipman-Blumen, J. (1976). Toward a Homosocial Theory of Sex Roles: An Explanation of the Sex Segregation of Social Institutions. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 1 (3, Part 2). https://doi.org/10.1086/493272
- Liu, Z., Shentu, M., Xue, Y., Yin, Y., Wang, Z., Tang, L., Zhang, Y., & Zheng, W. (2023). Sport–gender stereotypes and their impact on impression evaluations. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02132-9
- MacKay, F. (2014). Nested newness, institutional innovation, and the gendered limits of change. Politics and Gender, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X14000415
- Morgan, T., Henne, K., Blacklock, J., & Starre, K. (2025). Counting women: Indicator culture and gender inclusion in sports leadership. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 60(5). https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902241297882
- O’Shea, M. (2017). Career experiences in Australian sport organisations: formal and informal effects of gender. In School Dept Tourism, Sport & Hot Mgmt: Doctor of.
- Pape, M. (2020). Gender Segregation and Trajectories of Organizational Change: The Underrepresentation of Women in Sports Leadership. Gender and Society, 34(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243219867914
- Parker, M. B., & Curtner-Smith, M. D. (2012). Sport education: A panacea for hegemonic masculinity in physical education or more of the same? Sport, Education and Society, 17(4). https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2011.608945
- Piggott, L. V. (2022). “You only go from what you know”: the reproduction, resistance and evolution of gendered recruitment and selection processes in English sport governance. European Journal for Sport and Society, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/16138171.2021.1941613
- Rosselli, M., Ermini, E., Tosi, B., Boddi, M., Stefani, L., Toncelli, L., & Modesti, P. A. (2020). Gender differences in barriers to physical activity among adolescents. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 30(9). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2020.05.005
- Saeed, A., Belghitar, Y., & Yousaf, A. (2016). Firm-level determinants of gender diversity in the boardrooms: Evidence from some emerging markets. International Business Review, 25(5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2016.01.002
- Sartore, M. L., & Cunningham, G. B. (2007). Explaining the under-representation of women in leadership positions of sport organizations: A symbolic interactionist perspective. Quest, 59(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2007.10483551
- Sasson-Levy, O. (2011). Research on Gender and the Military in Israel: From a Gendered Organization to Inequality Regimes. Israel Studies Review, 26(2). https://doi.org/10.3167/isr.2011.260205
- Seierstad, C., Warner-Søderholm, G., Torchia, M., & Huse, M. (2017). Increasing the Number of Women on Boards: The Role of Actors and Processes. Journal of Business Ethics, 141(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2715-0
- Shaw, S., & Frisby, W. (2006). Can gender equity be more equitable?: Promoting an alternative frame for sport management research, education, and practice. Journal of Sport Management, 20(4), 491. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.20.4.483
- Sotiriadou, P., & de Haan, D. (2019). Women and leadership: advancing gender equity policies in sport leadership through sport governance. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2019.1577902
- Sveinson, K., Taylor, E., Keaton, A. C. I., Burton, L., Pegoraro, A., & Toffoletti, K. (2022). Addressing Gender Inequity in Sport Through Women’s Invisible Labor. Journal of Sport Management, 36(3). https://doi.org/10.1123/JSM.2021-0229
- Taylor, E., Sveinson, K., & Burton, L. (2024). “If This Is What Working in Sports Is, I Want Absolutely No Part of It”: Women’s Experiences With Sexual Harassment in Sport Organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 38(6). https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2023-0053
- Taylor, E., Sveinson, K., & Hindman, L. (2025). Navigating gendered dynamics in the workplace: a qualitative exploration of hostile work environments for women sport employees. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal, 15(5), 549–566. https://doi.org/10.1108/sbm-05-2025-0105
- Terjesen, S., Aguilera, R. V., & Lorenz, R. (2015). Legislating a Woman’s Seat on the Board: Institutional Factors Driving Gender Quotas for Boards of Directors. Journal of Business Ethics, 128(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2083-1
- Terjesen, S., Sealy, R., & Singh, V. (2009). Women directors on corporate boards: A review and research agenda. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 17(3). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8683.2009.00742.x
- Thornton, O., & Etxebarria, N. (2021). Against the odds of tradition: nudging the glass ceiling of sport leadership. Gender in Management, 36(5). https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-01-2020-0013
- Torchia, M., Calabrò, A., & Huse, M. (2011). Women Directors on Corporate Boards: From Tokenism to Critical Mass. Journal of Business Ethics, 102(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0815-z
- Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. J. (2005). Contribution of school programmes to physical activity levels and attitudes in children and adults. In Sports Medicine (Vol. 35, Number 2). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200535020-00001
- Tyler, M., Carson, L., & Reynolds, B. (2019). Are fire services ‘extremely gendered’ organizations? Examining the Country Fire Authority (CFA) in Australia. Gender, Work and Organization, 26(9). https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12393
- Wicker, P., & Cunningham, G. B. (2023). Gender stereotypes and their correlates: the moderating role of voluntary sports club membership. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1236439
- Wicker, P., & Frick, B. (2016). The inspirational effect of sporting achievements and potential role models in football: A gender-specific analysis. Managing Sport and Leisure, 21(5). https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2016.1265461
- Wicker, P., & Kerwin, S. (2022). Women representation in the boardroom of Canadian sport governing bodies: structural and financial characteristics of three organizational clusters. Managing Sport and Leisure, 27(5). https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2020.1825987
- World Bank Group. (2024). Female Labour Force Participation.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/picbe-2026-0039 | Journal eISSN: 2558-9652
Language: English
Page range: 473 - 494
Published on: Jul 16, 2026
Published by: Bucharest University of Economic Studies
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
Keywords:
Related subjects:
© 2026 Maria DULĂU, Emőke MOLNÁR, Alexandru Bogdan IORDACHE, published by Bucharest University of Economic Studies
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.