Abstract
This article examines how citizens engage with political actors on Facebook across twelve European countries, focusing on the nature and intensity of user interaction. Drawing on a dataset of over 70,000 Facebook comments on posts by national -level political leaders, we conduct a comparative content analysis to categorise digital expressions such as clicktivism, civic engagement or political participation. We also assess how political actors use Facebook to promote interaction and participatory behaviour. Our findings reveal that while Facebook provides a platform for political communication, most user engagement consists of low -effort, expressive behaviours with limited deliberative depth. Substantive forms of civic engagement and political participation are comparatively rare. The analysis also shows that few politicians use Facebook to encourage citizen participation or engage in two -way communication. These findings highlight the discrepancy between the platform’s participatory affordances and their actual utilisation. Rather than driving transformative political participation, Facebook serves primarily as a space for symbolic and affective expression. By mapping variations across countries and political roles, this study contributes to a more grounded understanding of digital engagement in contemporary democracies.