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Summary of factors affecting pavement construction quality from the past literature_
| Factors | References |
|---|---|
| Inspection team of client | Al-Hassan 1993; El-Maaty et al. 2016; Nyakala et al. 2019 |
| Availability of quality consultant | Al-Hassan 1993; El-Maaty et al. 2016 |
| Lowest bid | Abas et al. 2015; El-Maaty et al. 2016 |
| Financial capability of contractors | Abas et al. 2015; El-Maaty et al. 2016; Yepes et al. 2016; Smith et al. 2016 |
| Work subcontracted | Al-Hassan 1993; El-Maaty et al. 2016 |
| Equipment with contractor | Wambui et al. 2015; Abas et al. 2015; El-Maaty et al. 2016 |
| Escalation of costs | Abas et al. 2015; El-Maaty et al. 2016 |
| Assigning clear responsibilities | Al-Hassan 1993; El-Maaty et al. 2016 |
| Competent managers | Jha and Iyer 2006; Wambui et al. 2015 |
| Availability of finances for project | Al-Hassan 1993; Abas et al. 2015; Wambui et al. 2015; El-Maaty et al. 2016; Yepes et al. 2016; Hasan and Sobhan 2020; Nyakala et al. 2019 |
| Clarity in assignment of roles and responsibilities | Al-Hassan 1993; El-Maaty et al. 2016 |
| Surface cleanliness | Long 2017; Mohammad et al. 2010; Yaacob et al. 2014 |
| Crack repair | Long 2017; Gong et al. 2016; Lu et al. 2018; Speller 2019; Ayed et al. 2018 |
| Milling methodology | Yaacob et al. 2014; West 2015; Lu et al. 2018; Speller 2019; Ayed et al. 2018 |
| IRI | Gong et al. 2016; Chong et al. 2018; Gushgari et al. 2018 |
| HMA temperature | López et al. 2019; Jahanian et al. 2017; Galić et al. 2017; Hayat et al. 2019 |
| Compaction practices | Cantisani et al. 2016; Liu et al. 2018; Gao et al. 2018; Hayat et al. 2019; Roozbahany et al. 2013; West 2015 |
| Maintaining design cross slope | West 2015 |
| Maintenance of HMA temperature | Chu and Fwa 2020; Rahman et al. 2020; He et al. 2020 |
| Poor drainage | Rani and Hussain 2021; Yepes et al. 2016; Zumrawi 2021; Hasan and Sobhan 2020 |
| Organisational structure | Nyakala et al. 2019; Mwangi 2016; Karim and Magnusson 2008; Smith et al. 2016 |
Comparison of quality index values obtained from main factors_
| Main factors | Assigned Value/Rate | Difference between index value after each rise from 0 to 5 | Difference of maximum index value from 100% | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||
| Paving practices | 60.622 | 61.842 | 63.062 | 64.282 | 65.502 | 66.722 | 1.22 | 33.278 |
| Compaction practices | 60.683 | 61.902 | 63.121 | 64.34 | 65.559 | 66.778 | 1.219 | 33.222 |
| Sub-surface drainage system | 61.446 | 62.53 | 63.614 | 64.698 | 65.782 | 66.866 | 1.084 | 33.134 |
| Client’s and quality consultant’s capability | 61.33 | 62.441 | 63.552 | 64.663 | 65.774 | 66.885 | 1.111 | 33.115 |
| Payment and finances | 61.3 | 62.422 | 63.544 | 64.666 | 65.788 | 66.91 | 1.122 | 33.09 |
| Contractor’s capability | 61.443 | 62.5574 | 63.6718 | 64.7862 | 65.9006 | 67.015 | 1.1144 | 32.985 |
Mean ranks and weights of the main factors affecting pavement construction and rehabilitation quality_
| Main factors | Minimum | Mean score | Maximum | Rank | Weights for main factors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paving practices | 1 | 4.52 | 5 | 1 | 0.0736 |
| Compaction practices | 2 | 4.47 | 5 | 2 | 0.073 |
| Sub-surface drainage system | 1 | 4.33 | 5 | 3 | 0.0705 |
| Client’s and quality consultant’s capability | 1 | 4.32 | 5 | 4 | 0.0703 |
| Payment and finances | 2 | 4.300 | 5 | 5 | 0.0700 |
| Contractor’s capability | 1 | 4.21 | 5 | 6 | 0.0686 |
| Site management | 1 | 4.16 | 5 | 7 | 0.0678 |
| Transportation of material | 1 | 4.13 | 5 | 8 | 0.0673 |
| Prime coat/Tack coat application | 1 | 4.1 | 5 | 9 | 0.0668 |
| Execution of joints | 1 | 4.05 | 5 | 10 | 0.066 |
| Brooming and cleanliness | 2 | 4.01 | 5 | 11 | 0.0653 |
| Milling methodology | 1 | 3.86 | 5 | 12 | 0.063 |
| Organisational structure | 1 | 3.77 | 5 | 13 | 0.0614 |
| Crack repair | 1 | 3.75 | 5 | 14 | 0.0611 |
| Fulfilment of road opening requirements | 1 | 3.4 | 5 | 15 | 0.0554 |
Comparison of quality index values obtained from sub-factors_
| Top 6 Sub-factors | Assigned Value/Rate | Difference between index value after each rise from 0 to 5 | Difference of maximum index value from 100% | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||
| Availability of trained supervisors and other managerial staff | 65.385 | 65.56 | 65.735 | 65.91 | 66.085 | 66.26 | 0.175 | 33.7400 |
| Achieving 97%–98% of laboratory compaction/material density | 65.7796 | 65.8604 | 65.9412 | 66.022 | 66.1028 | 66.1836 | 0.0808 | 33.8164 |
| Client’s and quality consultant’s capability | 65.3143 | 65.5043 | 65.6943 | 65.8843 | 66.0743 | 66.2643 | 0.19 | 33.7357 |
| Smooth cash flows | 65.1903 | 65.4078 | 65.6253 | 65.8428 | 66.0603 | 66.2778 | 0.2175 | 33.7222 |
| Maintenance of design cross slope for surface runoff | 65.2948 | 65.4907 | 65.6866 | 65.8825 | 66.0784 | 66.2743 | 0.1959 | 33.7257 |
| Use of appropriate method for achieving design profile | 65.66 | 65.7685 | 65.877 | 65.9855 | 66.094 | 66.2025 | 0.1085 | 33.7975 |
Management related main factors and sub-factors affecting pavement construction and rehabilitation quality_
| Main Factors | Sub-factors | Weights for sub-factors | Rank (sub-factors) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Client’s and quality consultant’s capability | Financial capability of the client | 0.1564 | 1 |
| Keeping cyclic checks | 0.1487 | 2 | |
| Training of the consultant’s team regarding pavement rehabilitation practices | 0.1437 | 3 | |
| Previous pavement-related experience of the consultant | 0.1424 | 4 | |
| Past experience and skills for pavement-related practices of the client’s inspection team | 0.1395 | 5 | |
| Previous experience of the client regarding rehabilitation of pavements | 0.1368 | 6 | |
| Cyclic record keeping and amendments | 0.1325 | 7 | |
| Contractor’s capability | Availability of trained supervisors and other managerial staff | 0.1513 | 1 |
| Availability of skilled labour with the contractor | 0.1481 | 2 | |
| Cyclic checks performed by the contractor | 0.1475 | 3 | |
| Training and guidance of the contractor’s team | 0.1438 | 4 | |
| Timely procurement of machinery by the contractor | 0.14 | 5 | |
| Past experience of contractor pertaining to pavements | 0.1392 | 6 | |
| Subletting the work to subcontractors | 0.1301 | 7 | |
| Organisational structure | Technical assessment of contractor on bidding | 0.1507 | 1 |
| Quality management plan availability and accessibility | 0.1469 | 2 | |
| Procedures for training of staff and workers | 0.1458 | 3 | |
| Pavement-related quality standards availability and accessibility | 0.1452 | 4 | |
| Clarity of allocation of responsibilities and capabilities | 0.1384 | 5 | |
| Coordination and communication among officials | 0.1388 | 5 | |
| Performance measurement procedures for officials | 0.1341 | 6 | |
| Payment and finances | Smooth cash flows | 0.1806 | 1 |
| Escalation in prices of materials and machineries | 0.1688 | 2 | |
| Availability of finances for machinery with the contractor | 0.1654 | 3 | |
| Timely availability of finances to pay the labours | 0.1643 | 4 | |
| Timely availability of finances for payments to subcontractors | 0.1637 | 5 | |
| Reserves availability for any accidental/non-estimated expense | 0.1572 | 6 | |
| Site management | Availability of consultant for quality control at the site | 0.1832 | 1 |
| Availability of technical staff at the site | 0.1725 | 2 | |
| Availability of skilled labour at the site when needed | 0.1716 | 3 | |
| Timely availability of major machinery at the site when needed | 0.165 | 4 | |
| Timely availability of minor machinery at the site when needed | 0.1617 | 5 | |
| Discipline of site/managing disputes | 0.146 | 6 |
Constructional practices related main factors and sub-factors affecting pavement construction and rehabilitation quality_
| Main factors | Sub-factors | Weights for sub-factors | Rank (sub-factors) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brooming and cleanliness | Cleanliness of milled surface from loose material, dust, droppings and residuals | 0.2088 | 1 |
| Proper use of equipment | 0.2068 | 2 | |
| Dryness of the surface | 0.2058 | 3 | |
| Brooming before every prime/tack coat application | 0.2004 | 4 | |
| Use of hand brooms to remove the material leftover from the air compressor | 0.1782 | 5 | |
| Compaction practices | Achieving 97%–98% of laboratory compaction/material density | 0.0619 | 1 |
| Uniform/slow speed of the tandem rollers/PTR | 0.0606 | 2 | |
| Lubricating of PTR wheels with release agent | 0.0601 | 3 | |
| After compaction checking of pavement smoothness with a straight edge | 0.0595 | 4 | |
| Moisturising of roller wheels to prevent adhesion | 0.0594 | 5 | |
| Minimising of transverse joint | 0.0589 | 6 | |
| Overlapping of successive trips | 0.0589 | 6 | |
| Recommended air pressure in pneumatic tires of the paver group | 0.0589 | 6 | |
| Adherence to initial and breakdown rolling temperature | 0.0587 | 7 | |
| Adherence to pattern/sequence of compaction | 0.0587 | 7 | |
| Finish rolling to remove roller marks before cession temperature | 0.0588 | 7 | |
| Secondary or intermediate rolling with PTR | 0.0586 | 8 | |
| Requisite contact pressure for compaction | 0.0581 | 9 | |
| Continuous monitoring of time and duration of rolling | 0.0571 | 10 | |
| Avoidance of skin patching | 0.0564 | 11 | |
| Avoidance of backlash while using rollers in reverse direction | 0.0556 | 12 | |
| Crack repair | Compaction of each lift | 0.1065 | 1 |
| Milling of cracked area if cracks >(6–12) in 25–50 m area | 0.1042 | 2 | |
| Cutting/grooving method (asphalt cutter, small machine or jack hammer) | 0.1034 | 3 | |
| Tack coat application | 0.1034 | 3 | |
| Maximum lift thickness should not be more than 4 inches | 0.1005 | 4 | |
| Filling up the cracks with paver if they are in abundance | 0.0987 | 5 | |
| Sealing of minor cracks/patch edges | 0.0984 | 6 | |
| ¼ extension of the final uncompacted lift above the surrounding pavement | 0.0965 | 7 | |
| Cleaning and drying of the grooved surface | 0.095 | 8 | |
| Chamfering of sharp edges | 0.0934 | 9 | |
| Execution of joints | Cleanliness of dust | 0.0881 | 1 |
| Application of tack coat on vertical face of cold joint | 0.0867 | 2 | |
| Matching of thickness, density and uniformity in two mats of hot joint | 0.0856 | 3 | |
| Cutting of edges by cutters | 0.0848 | 4 | |
| Meeting of the second overlay with previously placed pavement in depth, grade and slope in cold joints | 0.0844 | 5 | |
| Use of two pavers parallel in the hot joint | 0.0834 | 6 | |
| Cutting of longitudinal edge up to full depth in cold joints | 0.0824 | 7 | |
| Cutting of longitudinal edge 75–100 mm from the joint | 0.0818 | 8 | |
| Absence of bump | 0.0816 | 9 | |
| Staggering of transverse joints of consecutive layers | 0.0810 | 10 | |
| Offsetting of longitudinal joint of lower layer from upper layer | 0.0805 | 11 | |
| Overlapping | 0.0797 | 12 | |
| Fulfilment of road opening requirements | IRI should be ≤1.5 m/km | 0.1803 | 1 |
| Absence of longitudinal as well as transverse undulations | 0.1702 | 2 | |
| Minimum rest period of 24 h | 0.1694 | 3 | |
| Grinding of high spots, if any | 0.1634 | 4 | |
| Cooling of full depth of HMA to 40°C | 0.1632 | 5 | |
| Opening of freshly treated road at control speed for traffic | 0.1535 | 6 | |
| Milling methodology | Efficiency of the milling machinery | 0.1213 | 1 |
| Milling surface inspection to see the difference as compared to profile level | 0.118 | 2 | |
| Proficiency level of surveyor/operator | 0.116 | 3 | |
| Use of several sensors with milling machine, including grade sensors | 0.1156 | 4 | |
| Straightening of edges of adjacent unmilled pavement | 0.11 | 5 | |
| Depth of milling | 0.1076 | 6 | |
| Use of straight edge equipment | 0.1065 | 7 | |
| Speed of milling/drum | 0.1062 | 8 | |
| Disposal of milled material away from work zone | 0.0988 | 9 | |
| Paving practices | Use of appropriate method for achieving design profile | 0.0815 | 1 |
| Removal/dryness of rainwater, etc. prior to laying of HMA | 0.0811 | 2 | |
| Placing of HMA before heat loss | 0.0807 | 3 | |
| Setting of paver with appropriate compaction, cross slope and vibration | 0.08001 | 4 | |
| Spreading of mix according to established grade elevation and slope with paver | 0.08001 | 4 | |
| Setting of pavement screed for initial compaction and shape of the surface | 0.0767 | 5 | |
| Visual inspection of HMA | 0.0767 | 5 | |
| Bumping of paver to avoid production of hump | 0.0763 | 6 | |
| Consistency in layer thickness | 0.076 | 7 | |
| Use of automatic screed control | 0.0757 | 8 | |
| Simultaneously lying of all lanes on one side of the median to avoid cold joints | 0.07308 | 9 | |
| Consistency of the head of material in front of the screed | 0.073 | 10 | |
| Keeping the hopper filled up with HMA all the time during the laying operation | 0.0692 | 11 | |
| Prime coat/tack coat application | Quality of material | 0.0984 | 1 |
| Surface cleanliness/preparation | 0.0968 | 2 | |
| Uniform distribution of asphaltic liquid | 0.0968 | 2 | |
| Control/accuracy on rate of application | 0.095 | 3 | |
| Suitable rest or curing time (of 24 h) after the prime coat | 0.093 | 4 | |
| Requirement/application of tack coat on vertical faces of joints | 0.0928 | 5 | |
| Suitable method of application (hand pump/pressure distributor) | 0.0892 | 6 | |
| Proper curing of primed base | 0.0887 | 7 | |
| Non-tacky condition of prime coat before asphaltic operation | 0.0867 | 8 | |
| Application of next course within tackiness condition of tack coat | 0.0865 | 9 | |
| Spreading of sand, etc. to prevent picking up wheels of traffic | 0.076 | 10 | |
| Sub-surface drainage system | Maintenance of design cross slope for surface runoff | 0.1604 | 1 |
| Cleaning of the existing drainage system | 0.1518 | 2 | |
| Redressal of design faults/already existing faults | 0.1492 | 3 | |
| Drainage outlet ditches for protection works during construction | 0.1406 | 4 | |
| Drainage channel depth as same as milling depth | 0.1351 | 5 | |
| Cutting of temporary drainage channels in shoulders | 0.1316 | 6 | |
| Suitable spacing in between drainage channels/catch pits | 0.1313 | 7 | |
| Transportation of material within a suitable temperature | Adherence to the requisite temperature of HMA while loading, | 0.1339 | 1 |
| unloading/laying and compaction Avoidance of segregation and lumps | 0.1317 | 2 | |
| Visual inspection and test of asphalt mixture | 0.129 | 3 | |
| Bed of dumper should be free from debris or residual of previous supply | 0.1275 | 4 | |
| Compatibility of size paver vis-a-vis truck | 0.1262 | 5 | |
| Coating of truck bed with release agent | 0.1187 | 6 | |
| Allowing load to break before tailgate is opened | 0.118 | 7 | |
| Constant supply of HMA from plant to site | 0.115 | 8 |