Chloroquine degradation in aqueous solution under electron beam irradiation

Kabasa, Stephen; Sun, Yongxia; Bułka, Sylwester; Chmielewski, Andrzej G.

doi:10.2478/nuka-2024-0008

Figures & Tables

UV-VIS absorption spectrum for 125 mg·L 1 chloroquine solution observed at 343 nm at irradiation doses ranging from 0 kGy to 7 kGy.

Degradation of 125 mg·L-1 of chloroquine solution under EB radiation.

Degradation of different concentrations of chloroquine solutions under EB irradiation. (a) Removal efficiency of chloroquine at different initial concentrations. (b) k (kGy-1) values for removal of chloroquine at 0.5 kGy. (c) Plot of the rate constant against dose.

Removal efficiency of 125 mg·L 1 of chloroquine solution under EB irradiation at different initial pH.

Changes in the pH of the solution with dose during the degradation of 125 mg·L-1 chloroquine solution.

Changes in the pH concentration during EB irradiation of 125 mg·L-1 chloroquine. The pH varied from slightly acidic before irradiation to acidic at the end of irradiation.

Release of Cl with increasing dose during radiolysis of chloroquine (125 mg·L-1) solution under the EB treatment.

(a) Reduction in total Kjeldahl nitrogen, formation of NO3−, and (b) generation of NH4+ in the degradation of 125 mg·L-1 of chloroquine solution under EB irradiation.

Changes in dissolved oxygen concentration during electron beam irradiation of 125 mg·L-1 chloroquine solution.

Variation in COD and TOC during EB degradation of 125 mg·L-1 solution of chloroquine.

Species formed in the radiolysis of water and their corresponding G-values and reaction rates (k) with CQ

Species	G (mmol·J^-1)	Molecules/100 eV	k (dm³·mol^-1·s^-1)
eaq−	0.28	2.8	4.8 × 10¹⁰
^•OH	0.28	2.8	7.3 × 10⁹
^•H	0.06	0.6	–
H₃O⁺	0.26	2.6	–
H₂	0.045	0.45
H₂O₂	0.07	0.7

Methods previously used for the removal of CQ from aqueous solutions

Methods	Conditions	Removal efficiency	Ref.
Membranes
Membrane bioreactors – tyrosinase enzyme on Escherichia coli biopolymer	pH 7.5, 20 h	98% with 140 ± 6 mg·g^-1 No apparent capacity loss over three consecutive cycles	[33]
Adsorbents
Activated carbon Palm kernel (Elaeis guineensis) shells		Large surface areas, strong mechanical characteristics	[27]
PPAC-ZnO	313 K 10 ppm CQ	78.89% Adsorption capacity increases with temperature	[28]
A-GO hydrogel		Adsorption 63 mg·g^-1	[29, 30]
GAC-GO	Equilibrium time 18 h	37.65 mg·g^-1 Adsorption	[32]
Organo-clay raw kaolinite treated with citric acid	20 mg·L^-1 CQ 120 min	99.28% Maximum sorption capacity is 4.03 mg·g^-1	[32]
Soybean hull residues functionalized with iron oxide nanoparticles (SBH-Fe₃O₄)	120 min 318 K	Adsorption capacity 98.84 mg·g^-1 Reuse five cycles	[34]
Iron and magnesium comodified rape straw biochar (Fe/Mg-RSB)	pH (3–11) CQ 4–25 mg·L^-1 at 180 r·min^-1 for 8 h 308 K	Adsorption capacity of 42.93 mg·g^-1	[35]
MOF sheet, namely BUC-21(Fe) FeSO₄·7H₂O, 1,3-dibenzyl-2-imidazoli-done-4,5-dicarboxylic acid (H₂L) and 4,4’-bipyridine (bpy)	pH = 5.0 30 min	100% C_•OH 242.5 mmol·L^-1, H₂O₂ consumption 83.2%	[36]
Catalysts
Ferrate-Fe(VI)	CQ 10 μM Fe(VI) 40–180 mM time 1–20 min	59% CQ removal Algae, antimicrobial, toxicity reduction	[19]
CWAO HEO – (MgCuMnCoFe) Ox	Oxygen pressure of 15 bar, catalyst dosage of 1.4 g·L^-1, and temperature of 230°C	34.6% and 41.2% higher than that without the HEO system	[11]
Single cobalt atoms in a defined Co–N₃ coordination structure	pH range (3–11) employing the SA Co-N-C (30)	100%	[24, 25]
Biochar-supported RM-BC activated persulfate process	20 mg·L^-1 40 min	84.8%	[26]
Carbon nanotube-loaded CoFe₂O₄ (CoFe₂O₄@CNTs) composite	10 mg·L^-1 CQ pH 7	Mineralization efficiency 33%, removal efficiency 98.7%	[37]
Advanced oxidation processes
SR-AOP	Peroxymonosulfate (PMS, HSO5−) peroxy disulfate (PDS, S2O82−) 10.0 mg·L^-1	P25M175-94.6% within 30 min	[23]
UV/PS	pH = 6.9 10 min	91.3% CQ reactions with ^•OH and SO4·− were 8.9 × 10⁹ L·(mol·s)^-1 and 1.4 × 10¹⁰ L·(mol·s)^-1	[38]
Photocatalysis-activated SR-AOP over PDINH/MIL-88A(Fe) composites	10.0 mg·L^-1 CQ P25M175 30 min	94.6% Good reusability and stability	[23]
Electrocoagulation	66.89 mA·cm–², 600 rpm 60 min electrolysis time 3 mg·L^-1 CQ, pH = 6.5	95% dissolved aluminum electrodes 0.228 kg·m^-3 energy consumption of 12.243 kWh·m^-3	[39]
EFP	Carbon felt cathode and BDD anode	92% (TOC)	[20]
FBER	BDD electrodes batch recirculation mode 9 h, pH 5.38, 34.4 mA·cm^-2, and liquid flow rate (Q) of 1.42 L·min^-1	Degradation 89.3%, COD 51.6%, mineralization 53.1% energy consumption 0.041 kWh·L^-1	[40]
Electro-Fenton with pyrite (FeS2)-modified graphite felt (FeS₂/GF) cathode	pH of 3.0 FeS₂ loading-10 mg, current density 150 mA, electrode spacing 2.0 cm	83.3 ± 0.4% 60 min CQ removal, retains 60.0% CQ removal in consecutive batch tests	[41]

Reaction rates (k) for degradation of different concentrations of chloroquine and corresponding R2

Concentration CQ (mg·L^-1)	k (kGy^-1)	R²
75	1.6567	0.9935
100	1.3603	0.9982
125	1.1224	0.9891

Chloroquine degradation in aqueous solution under electron beam irradiation

Figures & Tables

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Species formed in the radiolysis of water and their corresponding G-values and reaction rates (k) with CQ

Methods previously used for the removal of CQ from aqueous solutions

Reaction rates (k) for degradation of different concentrations of chloroquine and corresponding R2

Paradigm

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