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Analysis of the virulence potential, ability to form biofilms and susceptibility to bacteriocins of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from livestock and wildlife Cover

Analysis of the virulence potential, ability to form biofilms and susceptibility to bacteriocins of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from livestock and wildlife

Journal of Veterinary Research
Volume 70 (2026): Issue 1 (March 2026)
By: ,  ,  ,   and    
Open Access
|Feb 2026
Figures & tables

Figures & Tables

Table 1.

Virulence factors and encoding genes tested for in Polish livestock-and wildlife-originating Staphylococcus aureus strains

Virulence factorEncoding gene(s)
Staphylococcus enterotoxins A–ESeA, SeB, SeC, SeD, and SeE
Toxic shock syndrome toxinTst
Exfoliative toxinEt
Panton–Valentine leukocidin components S and FlukS-PV-lukF-PV
Leukocidin EDlukE and lukD
Biofilm-associated proteinbap
α-haemolysinhla
β-haemolysinhlb
Polysaccharide intercellular adhesinicaABCD and icaR
Clumping factors A and BclfA and clfB
Fibronectin-binding proteins A and BfnbpA and fnbpB
Murein hydrolase regulatorcidA
Collagen-binding proteincna
Staphylococcus elastin-binding proteinebpS
Laminin-binding proteineno
Serine-aspartate repeat proteinssdrC, sdrD and sdrE
Table 2.

Bacteriocins used in this study

BacteriocinProducer bacteriaSource of isolation
Ent412Enterococcus faecium EF412faecal strain from a Slovak warmblood horse
EntM/AL41E. faecium AL41/CCM8558environment
Ent7420E. faecium EF2019/CCM7420rabbit faeces
EntA(P)/EK 13E. faecium EK13=CCM7419environment
Ent55E. faecium EF55gastrointestinal tract of a chicken
Ent4231E. faecium CCM4231rumen of a calf
EM41/3E. mundtii EM41/3faeces of a horse of the Norik of Muran breed
Ent. as.1E. asini EAs 1/11D27inner part of the auricle mucosa of a mare of the Norik of Muran breed
Ent. sacch.E. saccharolyticus Es 3/11D27inner part of the auricle mucosa of a mare of the Norik of Muran breed
L.l MK 2/81L. lactisraw goat milk
L.l MK 2/21L. lactisraw goat milk
L.l MK 2/71L. lactisraw goat milk
nisinL. lactis (from Nisaplin)commercial strain

11 – the activity of bacteriocins against some S. aureus strains was partially described previously (24, 27)

Fig. 1.

Biofilm production capacity of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from different hosts

Table 3.

Occurrence of virulence genes in Polish livestock- and wildlife-originating Staphylococcus aureus strains

Virulence gene (n/%)
SeC*lukEDhla*hlb*icaAicaBicaDicaRclfAclfB*fnbpAfnbpB*cidAfib*cnaebpSenosdrC*sdrE
Pigs (n=51)36/711/239/7639/7651/10036/7150/9851/10051/10044/8638/7538/7514/2740/7836/7151/10039/7636/71
Cows (n=36)1/31/31/336/10036/10036/10036/10036/10036/10036/1003/836/10035/9718/5034/9436/10034/9429/81
Wild deer (n=12)12/10012/10012/10012/10012/10012/10012/1002/1712/10012/1009/7512/10012/1003/2510/83
Total (n=99)36/362/240/4040/4099/10084/8598/9999/10099/10048/4892/9343/4386/8761/6267/6882/8399/10076/7775/76

1 SeC – gene C encoding Staphylococcus enterotoxin; lukED – genes E and D encoding leukocidins; hla – gene a encoding haemolysin; hlb – gene β encoding haemolysin; icaA – gene A encoding the intracellular adhesion N-acetylglucosaminyl transferase enzyme synthesising oligomers; icaB – gene B encoding the intracellular adhesion deacetylase involved in polysaccharide intercellular adhesin maturation; icaD – gene D encoding the intracellular adhesion chaperone protein folding IcaA; icaR – gene R encoding the intracellular adhesion transcriptional repressor of the ica operon; clfA – gene A encoding clumping factor; clfB – gene B encoding clumping factor; fnbpA – gene A encoding fibronectin-binding protein; fnbpB – gene B encoding fibronectin-binding protein; cidA – gene A encoding the murein hydrolase regulator; fib – gene encoding fibrinogen-binding protein; cna – gene encoding collagen-binding protein; ebpS – gene encoding Staphylococcus elastin-binding protein; sdrC – gene C encoding serine-aspartate repeat protein; sdrE – gene E encoding serine-aspartate repeat protein.

1* – statistically significant differences in occurrence by host species (Mann–Whitney U test (P-value < 0.05))

Table 4.

Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient in the context of Staphylococcus aureus characteristics

BiofilmMRSASeClukEDhlahlbicaBicaDclfBfnbpAfnbpBcidAfibcnaebpSsdrCsdrE
Biofilm-–0.36*–0.35*0.05–0.36*–0.35*0.24*0.070.51*0.19–0.32*0.27*0.43*–0.24*0.21*0.080.01
MRSA–0.36*-0.92*0.030.96*0.94*0.18–0.12–0.76*0.070.81*0.14–0.75*0.57*0.21*0.31*0.32*
SeC–0.35*0.92*-–0.110.92*0.89*0.32*0.08–0.73*0.21*0.86*0.29*–0.70*0.52*0.34*0.42*0.43*
lukED0.050.03–0.11-0.170.18–0.14–0.70*0.01–0.24*–0.13–0.16–0.030.10–0.31*–0.26*–0.09
hla–0.36*0.96*0.92*0.17-0.98*0.18–0.12–0.76*0.070.81*0.14–0.70*0.57*0.160.26*0.32*
hlb–0.35*0.94*0.89*0.180.98*-–0.17–0.12–0.74*0.060.79*0.13–0.68*0.56*0.150.25*0.31*
icaB0.24*0.180.32*–0.140.18–0.17-0.24*0.41*0.65*0.26*0.92*0.070.37*0.93*0.57*0.75*
icaD0.07–0.120.08–0.70*–0.12–0.120.24*-0.100.37*0.090.26*0.13–0.070.22*0.180.18
clfB0.51*–0.76*–0.73*0.01–0.76*–0.74*0.41*0.10-0.27*–0.65*0.38*0.72*–0.24*0.33*0.010.12
fnbpA0.190.070.21*–0.24*0.070.060.65*0.37*0.27*-0.160.71*0.35*0.150.60*0.50*0.49*
fnbpB–0.32*0.81*0.86*–0.130.81*0.79*0.26*0.09–0.65*0.16-0.22*–0.61*0.34*0.29*0.38*0.21*
cidA0.27*0.140.29*–0.160.140.130.92*0.26*0.38*0.71*0.22*-0.120.30*0.85*0.56*0.69*
fib0.43*–0.75*–0.70*–0.03–0.70*–0.68*0.070.130.72*0.35*–0.61*0.12-–0.37*0.03–0.09–0.11
cna–0.24*0.57*0.52*0.100.57*0.56*0.37*–0.07–0.24*0.150.34*0.30*–0.37*-0.31*0.030.52*
ebpS0.21*0.21*0.34*–0.31*0.160.150.93*0.22*0.33*0.60*0.29*0.85*0.030.31*-0.64*0.74*
sdrC0.080.31*0.42*–0.26*0.26*0.25*0.57*0.180.010.50*0.38*0.56*–0.090.030.64*-0.47*
sdrE0.010.32*0.43*–0.090.32*0.31*0.75*0.180.120.49*0.21*0.69*–0.110.52*0.74*0.47*-

1 MRSA – methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; SeC – gene C encoding Staphylococcus enterotoxin; lukED – genes E and D encoding leukocidins; hla – gene a encoding haemolysin; hlb – gene β encoding haemolysin; icaB – gene B encoding the intracellular adhesion deacetylase involved in polysaccharide intercellular adhesin maturation; icaD – gene D encoding the intracellular adhesion chaperone protein folding IcaA; clfB – gene B encoding clumping factor; fnbpA – gene A encoding fibronectin-binding protein; fnbpB – gene B encoding fibronectin-binding protein; cidA – gene A encoding the murein hydrolase regulator; fib – gene encoding fibrinogen-binding protein; cna – gene encoding collagen-binding protein; ebpS – gene encoding Staphylococcus elastin-binding protein; sdrC – gene C encoding serine-aspartate repeat protein; sdrE – gene E encoding serine-aspartate repeat protein. Green indicates a very strong correlation and blue indicates a strong correlation

Table 5.

Virulence gene profiles of Staphylococcus aureus strains (n/%)

ProfileGene contentPigs (n=51)Cows (n=36)Wild deer (n=12)Total (n=99)
IicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE15/4215/15
IIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrC3/83/3
IIIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrC3/83/3
IVicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE12/331/813/13
VicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, eno1/31/1
VIlukED, hla, hlb, icaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, eno1/31/1
VIIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE1/31/1
VIIIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrE8/678/8
IXicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE1/81/1
XicaA, iaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC1/81/1
XIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno1/81/1
XIISeC, hla, hlb, icaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE30/5930/30
XIIISeC, hla, hlb, icaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE6/126/6
XIVicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, cna, eno1/21/1
XVicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, eno4/84/4
XVIicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fib, eno, sdrC2/42/2
XVIIicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fib, eno2/42/2
XVIIIicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fnbpB, fib, eno1/21/1
XIXicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, cidA, fib, eno1/21/1
XXicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, cidA, fib, eno, sdrC1/21/1
XXIlukED, hla, hlb, icaA, icaR, clfA, cna, eno1/21/1
XXIIhla, hlb, icaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fib, cna, eno1/21/1
XXIIIhla, hlb, icaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpB, cna, eno1/21/1

1 icaA – gene A encoding the intracellular adhesion N-acetylglucosaminyl transferase enzyme synthesising oligomers; icaB – gene B encoding the intracellular adhesion deacetylase involved in polysaccharide intercellular adhesin maturation; icaD – gene D encoding the intracellular adhesion chaperone protein folding IcaA; icaR – gene R encoding the intracellular adhesion transcriptional repressor of the ica operon; clfA – gene A encoding clumping factor; clfB – gene B encoding clumping factor; fnbpA – gene A encoding fibronectin-binding protein; cidA – gene A encoding the murein hydrolase regulator; fib – gene encoding fibrinogen-binding protein; cna – gene encoding collagen-binding protein; ebpS – gene encoding Staphylococcus elastin-binding protein; eno – gene encoding laminin-binding protein; sdrC – gene C encoding serine-aspartate repeat protein; sdrE – gene E encoding serine-aspartate repeat protein; fnbpB – gene B encoding fibronectin-binding protein; lukED – genes E and D encoding leukocidins; hla – gene a encoding haemolysin; hlb – gene β encoding haemolysin; SeC – gene C encoding Staphylococcus enterotoxin

Table 6.

Distribution of virulence and resistance gene profiles of Staphylococcus aureus strains

Host (n)Clonal complexSequence type/nMethicillin resistanceMultidrug resistanceVancomycin intermediate resistanceVirulence gene profileProfile component genesResistance genes
19/1–+–XVicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, enoblaZ
19/1–+–XVicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, enoblaZ, tetM
19/2–+–XVIicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fib, eno, sdrCblaZ, tetM
19/2–+–XVIIicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fib, enoblaZ, tetM
19/1–+–XIXicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, cidA, fib, enoblaZ, tetM
19/1–+–XXicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, cidA, fib, eno, sdrCblaZ, tetM
12423/2–+–XVicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, enoermC
398/1++–XXIlukED, hla, hlb, icaA, icaR, clfA, cna, enomecA, mecC, blaZ, ermB, tetM, tetK, aac
Pig398/1++–XXIIhla, hlb, icaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fib, cna, enomecA, mecC, blaZ, ermB, tetM, tetK
398/1++–XXIIIhla, hlb, icaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpB, cna, enomecA, mecC, blaZ, ermB, tetM, tetK
398/30++–XIISeC, hla, hlb, icaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrEmecA, mecC, blaZ, ermA, ermB, tetM, tetK
398/6++–XIIIhla, hlb, icaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpB, cna, enomecA, mecC, blaZ, ermA, ermB, tetM, tetK
8135/1–+–XIVicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, cna, enoblaZ, ermC, tetM
ND/1–––XVIIIicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fnbpB, fib, enoblaZ
133/1––+IVicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE-
479/1––+VIlukED, hla, hlb, icaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, eno-
398/1++–VIIicaA, icaD, icaR, clfA, fnbpA, fib, enomecA, mecC, blaZ, tetM, tetK
8139/1––+IIIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrCblaZ
8139/2––+IicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE-
CowND/1–––IIIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrCtetM, tetK
ND/13–––IicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE-
ND/1–––VicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, eno-
ND/11–––IVicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE-
ND/3–––IIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrC-
ND/1–––IIIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrC-
ND/1–––IXicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrEblaZ, tetM, tetK
ND/8–––VIIIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrE-
Wild deerND/1–––XicaA, iaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, fnbpB, cidA, fib, cna, ebpS, eno, sdrC-
ND/1–––IVicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA, fib, ebpS, eno, sdrC, sdrE-
ND/1–––XIicaA, icaB, icaD, icaR, clfA, clfB, fnbpA, cidA,fib, cna, ebpS, eno-

1 ND – not determined; icaA – gene A encoding the intracellular adhesion N-acetylglucosaminyl transferase enzyme synthesising oligomers; icaD – gene D encoding the intracellular adhesion chaperone protein folding IcaA; icaR – gene R encoding the intracellular adhesion transcriptional repressor of the ica operon; clfA – gene A encoding clumping factor; eno – gene encoding laminin-binding protein; fnbpA – gene A encoding fibronectin-binding protein; fib – gene encoding fibrinogen-binding protein; sdrC – gene C encoding serine-aspartate repeat protein; cidA – gene A encoding the murein hydrolase regulator; lukED – genes E and D encoding leukocidins; hla – gene a encoding haemolysin; hlb – gene β encoding haemolysin; cna – gene encoding collagen-binding protein; fnbpB – gene B encoding fibronectin-binding protein; clfB – gene B encoding clumping factor; SeC – gene C encoding Staphylococcus enterotoxin; sdrE – gene E encoding serine-aspartate repeat protein; icaB – gene B encoding the intracellular adhesion deacetylase involved in polysaccharide intercellular adhesin maturation; ebpS – gene encoding Staphylococcus elastin-binding protein; blaZ – gene encoding β-lactamase Z; tetM – gene M encoding a ribosomal protection protein for tetracycline resistance; ermC – gene C encoding a ribosomal methyltransferase for macrolide, lincosamide and streptogramin B resistance; mecA – gene A encoding a modified penicillin-binding protein; mecC – gene C encoding a modified penicillin-binding protein; ermB – gene B encoding a ribosomal methyltransferase for macrolide, lincosamide and streptogramin B resistance; tetK – gene K encoding a tetracycline efflux pump; aac – bifunctional aac(6')-Ie/aph(2")-Ia gene encoding acetyltransferase and phosphotransferase conferring broad aminoglycoside resistance; ermA – gene A encoding a ribosomal methyltransferase for macrolide, lincosamide and streptogramin B resistance

Fig. 2.

Activity of bacteriocins (arbitrary units/mL) against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. Ent412 – produced by an equine isolate of Enterococcus faecium; EntM – produced by an environmental isolate of E. faecium; Ent7420 – produced by a leporine isolate of E. faecium; EntA(P) – produced by an environmental isolate of E. faecium; Ent55 – produced by a poultry isolate of E. faecium; Ent 4231 – produced by a vituline isolate of E. faecium; EM 41/3 – produced by an equine isolate of E. mundtii; E. as. – produced by an equine isolate of E. asini; E. sacch. – produced by an equine isolate of E. saccharolyticus; L.l MK2 – produced by a caprine isolate of L. lactis; nisin – produced by a commercial strain of L. lactis. The activity of bacteriocins against some S. aureus strains was partially described previously (24, 27)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/jvetres-2026-0005 | Journal eISSN: 2450-8608 (formerly 2300-3235)
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Language: English
Page range: 21 - 31
Submitted on: May 20, 2025
Accepted on: Jan 29, 2026
Published on: Feb 5, 2026
Published by: National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Keywords:
antimicrobial resistance,
bacteriocins,
biofilm,
lactic acid bacteria,
virulence genes
Related subjects:
Life sciences,
Molecular biology,
Microbiology and virology,
Life sciences, other,
Medicine,
Veterinary medicine

© 2026 Aleksandra Trościańczyk, Aneta Nowakiewicz, Andrea Lauková, Marcelina Osińska, Agata Hahaj-Siembida, published by National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

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