References
- Bautista, S., Mayor, Á.G., Bourakhouadar, J., Bellot, J., 2007. Plant spatial pattern predicts hillslope runoff and erosion in a semiarid Mediterranean landscape. Ecosystems, 10, 987–998. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-007-9074-3
- Berghuis, P.M.J., Mayor, Á.G., Rietkerk, M., Baudena, M., 2020. More is not necessarily better: The role of cover and spatial organization of resource sinks in the restoration of patchy drylands. J. Arid. Environ., 183, 104282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104282
- Burrough, P.A., 1986. Principles of Geographic Information Systems for Land Resource Assessment. Monographs on Soil and Resources Survey No. 12, Oxford Science Publications, New York.
- Calvo-Cases, A., Arnau-Rosalén, E., Boix-Fayos, C., Estrany, J., Roxo, MJ, Symeonakis, E., 2021. Eco-geomorphological connectivity and coupling interactions at hillslope scale in drylands: Concepts and critical examples. J. Arid. Environ., 186, 104418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104418
- D’Odorico, P., Porporato, A., Runyan, C.W., 2019. Dryland Ecohydrology. Springer, Switzerland, 602 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23269-6
- Deblauwe, V., Couteron, P., Lejeune, O., Bogaert, J., Barbier, N., 2011. Environmental modulation of self-organized periodic vegetation patterns in Sudan. Ecography, 34, 990–1001. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06694.x
- Eldridge, D.J., Ding, J., 2021. Remove or retain: ecosystem effects of woody encroachment and removal are linked to plant structural and functional traits. New. Phytol., 229, 2637–2646. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17045
- Fan, Y., Clark, M., Lawrence, D.M., Swenson, S., Band, L.E., Brantley, L.S., Brooks, P.D., Dietrich, W.E., Flores, A., Grant, G., Kirchner, J.W., Mackay, D.S., McDonnell, J.J., Milly, P.C.D., Sullivan, P.L., Tague, C., Ajami, H., Chaney, N., Hartmann, A., Hazenberg, P., McNamara, J., Pelletier, J., Perket, J., Rouholahnejad-Freund, E., Wagener, T., Zeng, X., Beighley, E., Buzan, J., Huang, M., Livneh, B., Mohanty, B.P., Nijssen, B., Safeeq, M., Shen, C., van Verseveld, W., Volk, J., Yamazaki, D., 2019. Hillslope hydrology in global change research and Earth system modeling. Water. Resour. Res., 55, 1737–1772. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR023903
- Gandhi, P., Bonetti, S., Iams, S., Porporato, A., Silber, M., 2020. A fast–slow model of banded vegetation pattern formation in drylands. Phys. D. Nonlinear. Phenom., 410, 132534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physd.2020.132534
- García-Fayos, P., Bochet, E., Cerdà, A., 2010. Seed removal susceptibility through soil erosion shapes vegetation composition. Plant Soil, 334, 289–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0382-6
- Huang, J., Li, Y., Fu, C., Chen, F., Fu, Q., Dai, A., Shinoda, M., Ma, Z., Guo, W., Li, Z., Zhang, L., Liu, Y., Yu, H., He, Y., Xie, Y., Guan, X., Ji, M., Lin, L., Wang, S., Yan, H., Wang, G., 2017. Dryland climate change: Recent progress and challenges. Rev. Geophys., 55, 719–778. https://doi:10.1002/2016RG000550
- Jenson, S.K., Domingue, J.O., 1988. Extracting topographic structure from digital elevation data for geographic information system analysis. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing, 54, 1593–1600.
- Ludwig, J.A., Eager, R.W., Bastin, G.N., Chewings, V.H., Liedloff, A.C., 2002. A leakiness index for assessing landscape function using remote sensing. Landsc. Ecol., 17, 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016579010499
- Ludwig, J.A., Wilcox, B.P., Breshears, D.D., Tongway, D.J., Imeson, A.C., 2005. Vegetation patches and runoff-erosion as interacting ecohydrological processes in semiarid landscapes. Ecology, 86, 288–297. https://doi.org/10.1890/03-0569
- Ludwig, J.A., Bastin, G.N., Chewings, V.H., Eager, R.W., Lied-loff, A.C., 2007. Leakiness: A new index for monitoring the health of arid and semiarid landscapes using remotely sensed vegetation cover and elevation data. Ecol. Indic., 7, 442–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2006.05.001
- Maestre, F.T., Ramírez, D.A., Cortina, J., 2007. Ecología del esparto (Stipa tenacissima L.) y los espartales de la Península Ibérica. Ecosistemas, 16, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.7818/re.2014.16-2.00
- Mayor, A.G., Bautista, S., Rodriguez, F., Kéfi, S., 2019. Connectivity-mediated ecohydrological feedbacks and regime shifts in drylands. Ecosystems, 22, 1497–1511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-019-00366-w
- Mayor, Á.G., Bautista, S., Small, E.E., Dixon, M., Bellot, J., 2008. Measurement of the connectivity of runoff source areas as determined by vegetation pattern and topography: A tool for assessing potential water and soil losses in drylands. Water Resour. Res., 44, 10. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006367
- Meron, E., Gilad, E., Von Hardenberg, J., Shachak, M., Zarmi, Y., 2004. Vegetation patterns along a rainfall gradient. Chaos, Solitons and Fractals, 19, 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-0779(03)00049-3
- Okin, G.S., De Las Heras, M.M., Saco, P.M., Throop, H.L., Vivoni, E.R., Parsons, A.J., Wainwright, J., Peters, D.P.C., 2015. Connectivity in dryland landscapes: Shifting concepts of spatial interactions. Front. Ecol. Environ., 13, 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1890/140163
- Plaza, C., Zaccone, C., Sawicka, K., Méndez, A.M., Tarquis, A., Gascó, G., Heuvelink, G.B.M., Schuur, E.A.G., Maestre, F.T., 2018. Soil resources and element stocks in drylands to face global issues. Sci. Rep., 8, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-32229-0
- Puigdefábregas, J., 2005. The role of vegetation patterns in structuring runoff and sediment fluxes in drylands. Earth Surf. Process. Landforms, 30, 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1181
- Puigdefábregas, J., Sole, A., Gutierrez, L., del Barrio, G., Boer, M., 1999. Scales and processes of water and sediment redistribution in drylands: Results from the Rambla Honda field site in Southeast Spain. Earth. Sci. Rev., 48, 39–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(99)00046-X
- Ramírez, D.A., Bellot, J., Domingo, F., Blasco, A., 2007. Stand transpiration of Stipa tenacissima grassland by sequential scaling and multi-source evapotranspiration modelling. J. Hydrol., 342, 124–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.05.018
- Rietkerk, M., Bastiaansen, R., Banerjee, S., van de Koppel, J., Baudena, M., Doelman, A., 2021. Evasion of tipping in complex systems through spatial pattern formation. Science, 374, 6564. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abj0359
- Rietkerk, M., Dekker, S.C., De Ruiter, P.C., Van De Koppel, J., 2004. Self-organized patchiness and catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Science, 305, 1926–1929. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1101867
- Rodríguez-Caballero, E., Chamizo, S., Roncero-Ramos, B., Roman, R., Cantón, Y., 2018. Runoff from biocrust: A vital resource for vegetation performance on Mediterranean steppes. Ecohydrology, 11, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1977
- Rodríguez-Caballero, E., Román, J.R., Chamizo, S., Roncero-Ramos, B., Cantón, Y., 2019. Biocrust landscape-scale spatial distribution is strongly controlled by terrain attributes: Topographic thresholds for colonization in a semiarid badland system. Earth Surf. Process. Landforms, 44, 2771–2779. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4706
- Rodriguez-Iturbe, I., 2000. Ecohydrology: A hydrologic perspective of climate-soil-vegetation dynamics. Water. Resour. Res., 36, 3–9.
- Saco, P.M., Rodríguez, J.F., Moreno-de las Heras, M., Keesstra,
- S., Azadi, S., Sandi, S., Baartman, J., Rodrigo-Comino, J., Rossi, M.J., 2020. Using hydrological connectivity to detect transitions and degradation thresholds: Applications to dryland systems. Catena, 186, 104354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104354
- Safriel, U., Adeel, Z., Niemeijer, D., Puigdefabregas, J., White, R., Lal, R., Winslow, M., Ziedler, J., Prince, S., Archer, E., King, C., 2005. Chapter 22: Dryland systems. In: Hassan, R., Scholes, R., Ash, N. (Eds.): Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends. Island Press, Washington, pp. 625–664.
- Trichon, V., Hiernaux, P., Walcker, R., Mougin, E., 2018. The persistent decline of patterned woody vegetation: The tiger bush in the context of the regional Sahel greening trend. Glob. Change Biol., 24, 2633–2648. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14059
- Urgeghe, A.M., Bautista, S., 2015. Size and connectivity of upslope runoff-source areas modulate the performance of woody plants in Mediterranean drylands. Ecohydrology, 8, 1292–1303. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1582
- Urgeghe, A.M., Breshears, D.D., Martens, S.N., Beeson, P.C., 2010. Redistribution of runoff among vegetation patch types: On ecohydrological optimality of herbaceous capture of runon. Rangel. Ecol. Manag., 63, 497–504. https://doi.org/10.2111/REM-D-09-00185.1
- Wainwright, J., Turnbull, L., Ibrahim, T.G., Lexartza-Artza, I., Thornton, S.F., Brazier, R.E., 2011. Linking environmental régimes, space and time: Interpretations of structural and functional connectivity. Geomorphology, 126, 387–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.07.027
- Whitford, W., Ludwig, E., 2002. Ecology of Desert Systems. Elsevier. Ltd., 343 p. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-747261-4.X5000-7
- Winslow, M.D., Vogt, J.V., Thomas, R.J., Sommer, S., Martius, C., Akhtar-Schuster, M., 2011. Science for improving the monitoring and assessment of dryland degradation. Land Degrad. Dev., 22, 145–149. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1044