Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure A1

The impact of stricter employment protection measures on the probability of having short, medium, and long-term job tenure, 1995–2020_
Length of tenure (years) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Less than 1 | 5 to 10 | More than 10 | ||||
Sub-samples | Coeff. | Std. Error | Coeff. | Std. Error | Coeff. | Std. Error |
More difficult to dismiss regular workers | ||||||
Total | −0.861** | 0.333 | 0.021 | 0.317 | 0.347 | 0.931 |
Gender | ||||||
Males | −0.788* | 0.346 | 0.308 | 0.330 | −0.863 | 0.939 |
Females | −0.940** | 0.333 | −0.285 | 0.346 | 1.774** | 0.989 |
Education | ||||||
Lower secondary | −0.987** | 0.480 | −0.323 | 0.375 | 0.400 | 1.078 |
Upper secondary | −1.024** | 0.364 | 0.132 | 0.339 | 0.207 | 0.973 |
High: Third level | −0.728** | 0.284 | 0.012 | 0.306 | −0.405 | 0.849 |
Age | ||||||
30–40 | −0.764** | 0.349 | 0.484 | 0.459 | 1.330 | 1.010 |
40–50 | −0.395 | 0.245 | −0.316 | 0.437 | 0.334 | 1.004 |
50+ | −0.382** | 0.188 | 0.183 | 0.394 | −0.601 | 0.836 |
More difficult to hire temporary workers | ||||||
Total | −0.121 | 0.157 | −0.230 | 0.165 | 1.233** | 0.408** |
Gender | ||||||
Males | −0.157 | 0.161 | −0.169 | 0.164 | 1.197** | 0.407** |
Females | −0.072 | 0.157 | −0.249 | 0.185 | 1.260** | 0.441** |
Education | ||||||
Lower secondary | −0.159 | 0.211 | −0.111 | 0.195 | 0.915* | 0.461* |
Upper secondary | −0.167 | 0.165 | −0.085 | 0.179 | 1.023* | 0.425* |
High: Third level | 0.010 | 0.137 | −0.605*** | 0.163 | 1.603*** | 0.364*** |
Age | ||||||
30–40 | −0.189 | 0.164 | 0.569** | 0.245 | 0.148 | 0.475 |
40–50 | −0.189* | 0.112 | −0.649*** | 0.202 | 2.020*** | 0.424 |
50+ | −0.105 | 0.084 | −0.677*** | 0.170 | 1.833*** | 0.345 |
Countries included in the analysis sample and subregional grouping
Subregion | Country |
---|---|
Central Europe and the Baltic countries | Bulgaria |
Croatia | |
Czech Republic | |
Estonia | |
Hungary | |
Latvia | |
Lithuania | |
Poland | |
Romania | |
Slovak Republic | |
Slovenia | |
Northern Europe | Denmark |
Finland | |
Iceland | |
Norway | |
Sweden | |
Southern Europe | Cyprus |
Greece | |
Italy | |
Portugal | |
Spain | |
Western Europe | Austria |
Belgium | |
France | |
Ireland | |
Luxembourg | |
Netherlands | |
Switzerland | |
Untied Kingdom |
Descriptive statistics_
Variable | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min. | Max. | Obs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tenure (in years) | 10.44 | 9.93 | 0 | 47 | 24,506,274 |
Female | 0.47 | 0.49 | 0 | 1 | --- |
Age | 41.42 | 11.23 | 22 | 62 | --- |
Education | |||||
Lower secondary | 0.22 | 0.41 | 0 | 1 | --- |
Upper secondary | 0.48 | 0.49 | 0 | 1 | --- |
Tertiary | 0.27 | 0.44 | 0 | 1 | --- |
Married | 0.31 | 0.46 | 0 | 1 | --- |
Temporary work | 0.11 | 0.31 | 0 | 1 | --- |
Full-time work | 0.84 | 0.36 | 0 | 1 | --- |
Firm size (number of employees) | |||||
1 – 10 | 0.25 | 0.43 | 0 | 1 | --- |
11 – 19 | 0.11 | 0.32 | 0 | 1 | --- |
20 – 49 | 0.15 | 0.36 | 0 | 1 | --- |
50 or more | 0.36 | 0.48 | 0 | 1 | --- |
Less than 11 | 0.04 | 0.20 | 0 | 1 | --- |
More than 10 | 0.25 | 0.43 | 0 | 1 | --- |
GDP growth | 1.53 | 2.18 | −4.92 | 3.90 | 29 |
EPR (v.1) | 2.40 | 0.80 | 1.10 | 5 | 690 |
EPT (v.1) | 1.92 | 1.22 | 0.125 | 5.25 | 690 |
Trade openness | 105.57 | 56.04 | 36.16 | 408.36 | 724 |
ICT per capita capital stock (EUR th.) | 454.46 | 672.56 | 2.74 | 6678.61 | 436 |
The impact of a change in trade openness on the probability of having short, medium, and long-term job tenure, 1995–2020_
Sub-samples | Length of tenure (years) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Less than 1 | 5 to 10 | More than 10 | ||||
Coeff. | Std. Error | Coeff. | Std. Error | Coeff. | Std. Error | |
Change in trade openness | ||||||
Total | 3.846** | 1.267 | 2.129 | 1.522 | −0.050 | 3.397 |
Gender | ||||||
Males | 4.907*** | 1.290 | 2.097 | 1.432 | −1.266 | 3.360 |
Females | 2.669** | 1.283 | 2.154 | 1.753 | 1.252 | 3.697 |
Education | ||||||
Lower-secondary | 3.991** | 1.644 | 1.587 | 1.750 | 2.092 | 3.744 |
Upper-secondary | 4.342*** | 1.310 | 1.761 | 1.614 | 0.438 | 3.532 |
High: Third level | 2.829** | 1.131 | 3.467 | 1.608 | −2.334 | 2.965 |
Age | ||||||
30–40 | 3.761*** | 1.333 | 2.426 | 2.205 | 1.507 | 4.083 |
40–50 | 2.622*** | 0.903 | 1.873 | 1.745 | −0.050 | 3.500 |
50+ | 1.733** | 0.671 | 1.198 | 1.401 | −1.551 | 2.828 |
Technological change | ||||||
Total | 1.605* | 0.938 | 1.898* | 0.969 | 0.979 | 2.808 |
Gender | ||||||
Males | 1.458 | 0.929 | 0.746 | 0.907 | 0.893 | 2.741 |
Females | 1.725* | 0.979 | 3.271** | 1.149 | 0.767 | 3.071 |
Education | ||||||
Lower secondary | 1.014 | 1.171 | 1.899** | 1.115 | −0.306 | 3.096 |
Upper secondary | 1.913** | 0.964 | 2.666** | 1.067 | 1.052 | 2.941 |
High: Third level | 1.575* | 0.846 | 1.218 | 1.039 | 1.757 | 2.329 |
Age groups | ||||||
Age 30–40 | 1.269 | 0.982 | 3.372** | 1.452 | 1.438 | 3.453 |
Age 40–50 | 0.831 | 0.662 | 1.248 | 1.147 | 1.426 | 2.815 |
Age 50+ | 0.855* | 0.487 | 1.392 | 0.931 | 0.025 | 2.161 |
Estimated Yearly Percentage Point Trends for three tenure categories controling for the business cycle_ 1995–2020_
Length of tenuare (years) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Less than 1 | More than 5 | More than 10 | ||||
Sub-samples | Coeff. | Std. Error | Coeff. | Std. Error | Coeff. | Std. Error |
Total | 0.114*** | 0.018 | 0.054 | 0.039 | −0.253*** | 0.038 |
Gender | ||||||
Males | 0.097*** | 0.019 | 0.076** | 0.037 | −0.276*** | 0.039 |
Females | 0.134*** | 0.018 | 0.025 | 0.044 | −0.221*** | 0.038 |
Education | ||||||
Lower-secondary | 0.087*** | 0.021 | 0.070 | 0.042 | −0.288*** | 0.044 |
Upper-secondary | 0.108*** | 0.019 | 0.053 | 0.037 | −0.249*** | 0.036 |
Tertiary | 0.142*** | 0.017 | 0.037 | 0.043 | −0.177*** | 0.031 |
Age groups | ||||||
30–40 | 0.120*** | 0.018 | 0.071 | 0.058 | −0.249*** | 0.052 |
40–50 | 0.090*** | 0.012 | 0.119** | 0.035 | −0.308*** | 0.034 |
50+ | 0.064*** | 0.008 | 0.051 | 0.020 | −0.182*** | 0.022 |
Sub-regions | ||||||
Central Europe | −0.129** | 0.042 | 0.147*** | 0.035 | 0.035 | 0.039 |
Northern Europe | 0.167*** | 0.028 | 0.032 | 0.048 | −0.492*** | 0.029 |
Southern Europe | 0.017 | 0.024 | 0.084 | 0.050 | −0.144** | 0.040 |
Western Europe | 0.223*** | 0.022 | −0.005 | 0.046 | −0.280*** | 0.050 |
Estimated Yearly Percentage Point Trends for three tenure categories, 1995–2020_
Sub-samples | Length of tenure (years) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Less than 1 | 5 to 10 | More than 10 | ||||
Coeff. | Std. Error | Coeff. | Std. Error | Coeff. | Std. Error | |
Total | 0.098*** | 0.018 | 0.046 | 0.036 | −0.269*** | 0.035 |
Gender | ||||||
Males | 0.079*** | 0.019 | 0.070** | 0.033 | −0.288*** | 0.036 |
Females | 0.119*** | 0.017 | 0.014 | 0.039 | −0.240*** | 0.036 |
Education | ||||||
Lower-secondary | 0.069** | 0.021 | 0.063 | 0.038 | −0.307*** | 0.040 |
Upper-secondary | 0.091*** | 0.019 | 0.048 | 0.034 | −0.263*** | 0.033 |
Tertiary | 0.128*** | 0.017 | 0.024 | 0.039 | −0.191*** | 0.029 |
Age groups | ||||||
30–40 | 0.104*** | 0.018 | 0.050 | 0.053 | −0.265*** | 0.047 |
40–50 | 0.079*** | 0.012 | 0.113** | 0.032 | −0.324*** | 0.031 |
50+ | 0.056*** | 0.008 | 0.054** | 0.018 | −0.196*** | 0.021 |
Sub-regions | ||||||
Central Europe | −0.135** | 0.040 | 0.153*** | 0.033 | 0.041 | 0.037 |
Northern Europe | 0.149*** | 0.026 | 0.020 | 0.043 | −0.496*** | 0.026 |
Southern Europe | −0.002 | 0.024 | 0.068 | 0.046 | −0.156*** | 0.036 |
Western Europe | 0.211*** | 0.021 | −0.006 | 0.042 | −0.302*** | 0.047 |
Average tenure by subgroups, 1995–2020_
Sub-samples | Representative years | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1995 | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 | |
Total | 10.32 | 10.27 | 10.04 | 10.19 | 10.47 | 10.33 |
Gender | ||||||
Males | 11.11 | 10.80 | 10.43 | 10.63 | 10.84 | 10.67 |
Females | 9.19 | 9.56 | 9.54 | 9.66 | 10.03 | 9.94 |
Education | ||||||
Lower-secondary | 11.32 | 11.53 | 11.37 | 11.56 | 11.67 | 11.21 |
Upper-secondary | 9.64 | 9.80 | 9.58 | 9.90 | 10.44 | 10.34 |
Tertiary | 9.70 | 9.43 | 9.46 | 9.56 | 9.86 | 9.89 |
Age | ||||||
25–29 | 4.20 | 3.81 | 3.52 | 3.47 | 3.35 | 3.06 |
30–39 | 7.91 | 7.61 | 6.93 | 6.63 | 6.67 | 6.25 |
40–49 | 13.22 | 12.96 | 12.10 | 11.54 | 11.31 | 10.87 |
50+ | 18.44 | 18.10 | 17.54 | 17.46 | 17.38 | 17.04 |
Type of contract | ||||||
Permanent | 10.62 | 10.55 | 10.44 | 10.56 | 11.04 | 10.83 |
Temporary | 1.86 | 2.22 | 2.26 | 2.30 | 2.40 | 2.40 |
Sub-regions | ||||||
Central Europe | N/A | 9.29 | 9.24 | 9.38 | 9.55 | 9.76 |
Northern Europe | 9.59 | 9.18 | 9.26 | 9.09 | 9.00 | 8.55 |
Southern Europe | 11.79 | 11.14 | 10.89 | 11.30 | 11.73 | 11.65 |
Western Europe | 10.37 | 9.81 | 10.03 | 9.96 | 10.03 | 9.65 |