OLS: effect of living in a household that owns an appliance on married women's employment
| Washing machine | Refrigerator | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
| Owns washing machine | 0.030*** (0.009) | 0.004 (0.018) | ||
| Owns refrigerator | −0.001 (0.007) | −0.010 (0.011) | ||
| Age | 0.054*** (0.002) | 0.064*** (0.002) | 0.054*** (0.002) | 0.063*** (0.002) |
| Age-squared | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) |
| Years of schooling | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.012*** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.012*** (0.001) |
| Rural | 0.244*** (0.014) | 0.043* (0.025) | 0.246*** (0.014) | 0.043* (0.025) |
| Hindu | 0.060*** (0.009) | 0.078*** (0.014) | 0.060*** (0.009) | 0.079*** (0.014) |
| SC or ST | 0.015** (0.007) | 0.013 (0.009) | 0.014** (0.007) | 0.013 (0.009) |
| Wealth index | −0.146*** (0.006) | −0.112*** (0.008) | −0.144*** (0.006) | −0.110*** (0.008) |
| No. of children (household) | 0.000 (0.002) | −0.004* (0.002) | −0.000 (0.002) | −0.005** (0.002) |
| Village controls | ||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.003** (0.001) | 0.003* (0.001) | ||
| Phone access | −0.014 (0.011) | −0.013 (0.011) | ||
| Distance to railway station (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.002** (0.001) | 0.002*** (0.001) | ||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | 0.002*** (0.001) | 0.003*** (0.001) | ||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Average appliance ownership | 0.096 | 0.046 | 0.294 | 0.191 |
| Average employment | 0.466 | 0.619 | 0.465 | 0.619 |
| N | 70,263 | 38,109 | 73,078 | 39,398 |
| R2 | 0.303 | 0.228 | 0.302 | 0.225 |
2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns an appliance on married women's employment
| Washing machine | Refrigerator | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
| First stage | ||||
| Owns washing machine (single women) | 0.501*** (0.017) | 0.485*** (0.031) | ||
| Owns refrigerator (single women) | 0.376*** (0.013) | 0.352*** (0.020) | ||
| Owns air conditioner | 0.437*** (0.024) | 0.523*** (0.0450) | 0.158*** (0.019) | 0.223*** (0.031) |
| Owns color television | 0.003 (0.004) | 0.000 (0.004) | 0.121*** (0.008) | 0.100*** (0.011) |
| F–statistic | 638.36 | 146.45 | 495.87 | 193.80 |
| 2SLS | ||||
| Owns washing machine | 0.030 (0.035) | −0.074 (0.061) | ||
| Owns refrigerator | −0.102*** (0.031) | −0.097* (0.055) | ||
| Age | 0.054*** (0.002) | 0.064*** (0.002) | 0.054*** (0.002) | 0.064*** (0.002) |
| Age–squared | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) |
| Years of schooling | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.012*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.011*** (0.001) |
| Rural | 0.242*** (0.014) | 0.041 (0.025) | 0.239*** (0.014) | 0.036 (0.026) |
| Hindu | 0.060*** (0.009) | 0.075*** (0.014) | 0.057*** (0.009) | 0.074*** (0.014) |
| SC or ST | 0.015** (0.007) | 0.012 (0.009) | 0.013* (0.007) | 0.010 (0.009) |
| Wealth index | −0.140*** (0.007) | −0.102*** (0.009) | −0.107*** (0.010) | −0.082*** (0.016) |
| No. of children (household) | 0.000 (0.002) | −0.004* (0.002) | 0.001 (0.002) | −0.004* (0.002) |
| Village controls | ||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.003** (0.001) | 0.003* (0.001) | ||
| Phone access | −0.014 (0.011) | −0.016 (0.011) | ||
| Distance to railway station (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.002** (0.001) | 0.001** (0.001) | ||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | 0.002*** (0.001) | 0.002*** (0.001) | ||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Average appliance ownership | 0.096 | 0.046 | 0.294 | 0.194 |
| Average employment | 0.466 | 0.619 | 0.467 | 0.619 |
| N | 70,160 | 38,059 | 70,221 | 38,071 |
| R2 | 0.303 | 0.227 | 0.298 | 0.225 |
2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a refrigerator on married women's work
| Work inside household | Work outside household | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
| First stage | ||||
| Owns Refrigerator (single women) | 0.376*** (0.0132) | 0.352*** (0.0204) | 0.376*** (0.0132) | 0.352*** (0.0204) |
| Owns air conditioner | 0.158*** (0.0190) | 0.223*** (0.0313) | 0.158*** (0.0190) | 0.223*** (0.0313) |
| Owns color television | 0.121*** (0.00848) | 0.0999*** (0.0112) | 0.121*** (0.00848) | 0.0999*** (0.0112) |
| F–statistic | 495.87 | 193.8 | 495.87 | 193.8 |
| 2SLS | ||||
| Owns refrigerator | −0.145*** (0.030) | −0.106* (0.058) | 0.082*** (0.026) | 0.010 (0.045) |
| Age | 0.037*** (0.002) | 0.050*** (0.002) | 0.034*** (0.001) | 0.038*** (0.002) |
| Age–squared | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) |
| Years of schooling | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.009*** (0.001) | −0.002** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.001) |
| Rural | 0.285*** (0.014) | 0.072*** (0.026) | 0.010 (0.011) | −0.016 (0.020) |
| Hindu | 0.053*** (0.009) | 0.089*** (0.016) | 0.026*** (0.006) | 0.012 (0.009) |
| SC or ST | −0.065*** (0.008) | −0.079*** (0.010) | 0.113*** (0.008) | 0.136*** (0.009) |
| Wealth index | −0.025** (0.010) | −0.012 (0.016) | −0.150*** (0.010) | −0.136*** (0.014) |
| No. of children (household) | 0.004*** (0.002) | −0.000 (0.002) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.002) |
| Village controls | ||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | −0.001 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.003* (0.002) | 0.002 (0.002) | ||
| Phone access | −0.046*** (0.013) | 0.016 (0.010) | ||
| Distance to railway station (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.003*** (0.001) | −0.002*** (0.001) | ||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | 0.003*** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | ||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | ||
| N | 70,160 | 38,059 | 70,160 | 38,059 |
| R2 | 0.288 | 0.191 | 0.206 | 0.249 |
Summary statistics by ownership of appliance: children 12–18 years of age
| Variable | Owns washing machine (7.3%) | Does not own washing machine (92.7%) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | Standard deviation | N | Mean | Standard deviation | N | |
| Completed primary | 0.965 | 0.185 | 3,607 | 0.855 | 0.352 | 45,882 |
| Years of schooling | 8.660 | 2.414 | 3,607 | 7.216 | 2.939 | 45,882 |
| Currently enrolled | 0.950 | 0.219 | 3,607 | 0.746 | 0.435 | 45,890 |
| Currently employed | 0.045 | 0.207 | 3,616 | 0.182 | 0.386 | 45,987 |
| Female | 0.468 | 0.499 | 3,616 | 0.488 | 0.500 | 45,987 |
| Hindu | 0.683 | 0.465 | 3,616 | 0.784 | 0.411 | 45,987 |
| SC or ST | 0.154 | 0.361 | 3,605 | 0.296 | 0.456 | 45,964 |
| Rural | 0.264 | 0.441 | 3,616 | 0.650 | 0.477 | 45,987 |
| Owns refrigerator | 0.943 | 0.232 | 3,613 | 0.187 | 0.390 | 45,898 |
| Owns color television | 0.956 | 0.205 | 3,616 | 0.473 | 0.499 | 45,932 |
| Wealth index | 2.582 | 0.299 | 3,616 | 1.726 | 0.596 | 45,987 |
| Father's age | 44.610 | 6.680 | 2,492 | 43.820 | 8.402 | 29,733 |
| Father's years of schooling | 10.514 | 4.064 | 2,490 | 5.916 | 4.610 | 29,680 |
| Mother's age | 39.448 | 7.132 | 2,700 | 38.404 | 8.246 | 31,803 |
| Mother's years of schooling | 8.641 | 4.897 | 2,700 | 3.710 | 4.270 | 31,752 |
2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a washing machine on married women's work
| Work inside household | Work outside household | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
| First stage | ||||
| Owns washing machine (single women) | 0.501*** (0.0171) | 0.485*** (0.0310) | 0.501*** (0.0171) | 0.485*** (0.0310) |
| Owns air conditioner | 0.437*** (0.0239) | 0.523*** (0.0450) | 0.437*** (0.0239) | 0.523*** (0.0450) |
| Owns color television | 0.00278 (0.00409) | 0.0000 (0.00407) | 0.00278 (0.00409) | 0.0000 (0.00407) |
| F–statistic | 638.36 | 146.45 | 638.36 | 146.45 |
| 2SLS | ||||
| Owns washing machine | −0.068** (0.027) | −0.147** (0.067) | 0.154*** (0.023) | 0.080** (0.033) |
| Age | 0.037*** (0.002) | 0.050*** (0.002) | 0.035*** (0.001) | 0.039*** (0.002) |
| Age–squared | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) |
| Years of schooling | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.010*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.001) |
| Rural | 0.286*** (0.014) | 0.076*** (0.024) | 0.014 (0.010) | −0.014 (0.019) |
| Hindu | 0.054*** (0.009) | 0.088*** (0.016) | 0.027*** (0.006) | 0.013 (0.009) |
| SC or ST | −0.064*** (0.008) | −0.078*** (0.010) | 0.113*** (0.008) | 0.137*** (0.009) |
| Wealth index | −0.062*** (0.007) | −0.029*** (0.009) | −0.140*** (0.007) | −0.140*** (0.009) |
| No. of children (household) | 0.004** (0.002) | −0.000 (0.002) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.002) |
| Village controls | ||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | −0.001 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.003** (0.002) | 0.002 (0.001) | ||
| Phone access | −0.043*** (0.013) | 0.016 (0.010) | ||
| Distance to railway station (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.003*** (0.001) | −0.002*** (0.001) | ||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | 0.003*** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | ||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | ||
| N | 70,160 | 38,059 | 70,160 | 38,059 |
| R2 | 0.288 | 0.191 | 0.206 | 0.249 |
Summary statistics of the women in the study, by marital status
| Variable | Married women aged 15–59 years | Single women aged 15–59 years | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2005 | 2012 | 2005 | 2012 | |
| Urban | 27.76 | 32.97 | 31.98 | 34.04 |
| Age | 35.15 | 36.64 | 25.16 | 26.72 |
| Hindu | 82.77 | 82.4 | 78.43 | 79.64 |
| Mean number of kids in the household | 1.674 (1.585) | 2.049 (1.99) | 0.796 (1.242) | 1.639 (1.909) |
| Education: | ||||
| Mean years of schooling | 3.921 | 4.988 | 6.46 | 7.46 |
| Literate | 49.59 | 59.32 | 72.69 | 77.35 |
| Employment: | ||||
| Work inside the household: | ||||
| Animal care | 29.59 | 22.34 | 17.47 | 11.91 |
| Farm work | 20.93 | 18.31 | 9.94 | 8.92 |
| Family business work | 3.05 | 3.99 | 2.31 | 2.72 |
| Work outside the household: | ||||
| Agricultural labor | 14.38 | 11.96 | 9.03 | 8.24 |
| Nonagricultural labor | 4.39 | 7.12 | 3.44 | 5.06 |
| Salaried position | 3.47 | 4.69 | 5.36 | 6.85 |
| Employment rate | 51.73 | 48.25 | 35.64 | 33.63 |
| Rural | 63.71 | 60.48 | 43.3 | 39.09 |
| Urban | 20.57 | 23.37 | 19.34 | 23.07 |
| Mean wealth index | 1.537 (0.687) | 1.760 (0.693) | 1.607 (0.679) | 1.757 (0.674) |
| N | 45,538 | 42,715 | 18,727 | 20,937 |
OLS: effect of living in a household that owns a washing machine on children's outcomes
| Enrollment | Employment | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Male | Female | All | Male | Female | |||||||
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | |
| Owns washing machine | 0.001 (0.008) | 0.019 (0.013) | −0.004 (0.011) | 0.018 (0.015) | 0.007 (0.010) | 0.024 (0.019) | −0.004 (0.007) | −0.025* (0.014) | −0.006 (0.010) | −0.024 (0.020) | −0.004 (0.009) | −0.023 (0.018) |
| Age | 0.142*** (0.017) | 0.168*** (0.024) | 0.167*** (0.022) | 0.202*** (0.030) | 0.108*** (0.027) | 0.129*** (0.038) | −0.064*** (0.017) | −0.062** (0.025) | −0.096*** (0.023) | −0.092*** (0.032) | 0.012 (0.023) | 0.016 (0.035) |
| Age–squared | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.009*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) |
| Female | −0.016*** (0.005) | −0.032*** (0.008) | −0.055*** (0.005) | −0.051*** (0.007) | ||||||||
| Rural | 0.030*** (0.008) | −0.034* (0.018) | 0.046*** (0.011) | −0.019 (0.023) | 0.006 (0.010) | −0.048 (0.031) | 0.058*** (0.009) | 0.009 (0.023) | 0.054*** (0.011) | 0.017 (0.031) | 0.062*** (0.010) | 0.003 (0.030) |
| Hindu | 0.080*** (0.010) | 0.073*** (0.014) | 0.077*** (0.011) | 0.065*** (0.014) | 0.085*** (0.012) | 0.084*** (0.020) | −0.007 (0.006) | −0.005 (0.010) | −0.019** (0.009) | −0.020 (0.015) | 0.003 (0.007) | 0.010 (0.013) |
| SC or ST | −0.011* (0.006) | −0.020*** (0.008) | −0.018** (0.008) | −0.027*** (0.009) | −0.003 (0.008) | −0.010 (0.011) | −0.009 (0.006) | −0.007 (0.008) | −0.007 (0.007) | −0.008 (0.010) | −0.013* (0.007) | −0.009 (0.011) |
| Wealth index | 0.096*** (0.008) | 0.079*** (0.011) | 0.096*** (0.009) | 0.076*** (0.011) | 0.095*** (0.010) | 0.083*** (0.014) | −0.067*** (0.006) | −0.054*** (0.008) | −0.065*** (0.008) | −0.050*** (0.011) | −0.068*** (0.008) | −0.058*** (0.011) |
| Father's age | −0.003*** (0.000) | −0.002*** (0.001) | −0.002*** (0.001) | −0.002* (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | 0.001** (0.000) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001* (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) |
| Mother's age | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) |
| Father's years of schooling | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.013*** (0.001) | 0.013*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) |
| Mother's years of schooling | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) |
| Village controls | ||||||||||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001** (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.001 (0.002) | 0.003 (0.002) | −0.000 (0.002) | 0.000 (0.002) | −0.002 (0.003) | 0.002 (0.002) | ||||||
| Phone access | 0.003 (0.011) | 0.001 (0.013) | 0.010 (0.015) | −0.030** (0.012) | −0.027* (0.014) | −0.029* (0.016) | ||||||
| Distance to railway station (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.002* (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | −0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.002 (0.001) | 0.002** (0.001) | 0.002 (0.001) | 0.002* (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Average washing machine ownership | 0.079 | 0.037 | 0.076 | 0.038 | 0.083 | 0.037 | 0.079 | 0.037 | 0.076 | 0.038 | 0.083 | 0.037 |
| Average Yict | 0.819 | 0.806 | 0.813 | 0.806 | 0.827 | 0.807 | 0.152 | 0.194 | 0.184 | 0.226 | 0.110 | 0.152 |
| N | 30,348 | 17,127 | 17,168 | 9,744 | 13,176 | 7,378 | 30,363 | 17,132 | 17,177 | 9,748 | 13,182 | 7,379 |
| R2 | 0.248 | 0.245 | 0.249 | 0.246 | 0.281 | 0.290 | 0.170 | 0.167 | 0.196 | 0.196 | 0.163 | 0.166 |
2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a washing machine on children's outcomes
| Enrollment | Employment | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Male | Female | All | Male | Female | |||||||
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | |
| First stage | ||||||||||||
| Owns washing machine (no children) | 0.379*** (0.027) | 0.406*** (0.042) | 0.405*** (0.026) | 0.454*** (0.045) | 0.348*** (0.034) | 0.348*** (0.055) | 0.379*** (0.027) | 0.406*** (0.042) | 0.405*** (0.026) | 0.454*** (0.045) | 0.348*** (0.034) | 0.348*** (0.055) |
| Owns air conditioner | 0.483*** (0.028) | 0.496*** (0.075) | 0.460*** (0.035) | 0.499*** (0.093) | 0.515*** (0.033) | 0.504*** (0.091) | 0.484*** (0.028) | 0.496*** (0.075) | 0.460*** (0.035) | 0.499*** (0.093) | 0.515*** (0.033) | 0.504*** (0.091) |
| Owns color television | −0.002 (0.005) | 0.004 (0.005) | 0.005 (0.005) | 0.008* (0.005) | −0.009 (0.007) | −0.002 (0.006) | −0.002 (0.005) | 0.004 (0.005) | 0.005 (0.005) | 0.008* (0.005) | −0.009 (0.007) | −0.001 (0.006) |
| F–statistic | 108.67 | 17.72 | 156.08 | 50.09 | 175.99 | 30.48 | 207.77 | 55.00 | 156.10 | 50.08 | 176.29 | 30.48 |
| 2SLS | ||||||||||||
| Owns washing machine | −0.014 (0.022) | 0.034 (0.062) | −0.016 (0.028) | 0.022 (0.064) | −0.020 (0.030) | 0.036 (0.087) | 0.009 (0.021) | −0.055 (0.067) | 0.004 (0.032) | −0.002 (0.074) | −0.003 (0.022) | −0.162* (0.087) |
| Age | 0.143*** (0.017) | 0.169*** (0.024) | 0.168*** (0.022) | 0.203*** (0.030) | 0.109*** (0.027) | 0.129*** (0.038) | −0.065*** (0.017) | −0.063** (0.025) | −0.098*** (0.023) | −0.094*** (0.032) | 0.012 (0.023) | 0.019 (0.035) |
| Age–squared | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.009*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) |
| Female | −0.016*** (0.005) | −0.032*** (0.008) | −0.055*** (0.005) | −0.051*** (0.007) | ||||||||
| Rural | 0.029*** (0.008) | −0.033* (0.019) | 0.045*** (0.012) | −0.019 (0.023) | 0.004 (0.011) | −0.047 (0.033) | 0.058*** (0.009) | 0.006 (0.024) | 0.054*** (0.010) | 0.017 (0.031) | 0.062*** (0.010) | −0.009 (0.034) |
| Hindu | 0.081*** (0.010) | 0.074*** (0.014) | 0.078*** (0.011) | 0.066*** (0.015) | 0.085*** (0.013) | 0.086*** (0.020) | −0.007 (0.006) | −0.007 (0.011) | −0.019** (0.009) | −0.021 (0.015) | 0.003 (0.007) | 0.006 (0.014) |
| SC or ST | −0.011* (0.006) | −0.020*** (0.008) | −0.018** (0.008) | −0.027*** (0.009) | −0.002 (0.008) | −0.010 (0.012) | −0.009 (0.006) | −0.008 (0.008) | −0.007 (0.007) | −0.008 (0.010) | −0.013* (0.007) | −0.010 (0.011) |
| Wealth index | 0.090*** (0.007) | 0.072*** (0.010) | 0.090*** (0.008) | 0.069*** (0.011) | 0.091*** (0.010) | 0.076*** (0.015) | −0.065*** (0.006) | −0.050*** (0.009) | −0.063*** (0.008) | −0.050*** (0.011) | −0.064*** (0.008) | −0.046*** (0.012) |
| Father's age | −0.003*** (0.000) | −0.002*** (0.001) | −0.002*** (0.001) | −0.002* (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | 0.001** (0.000) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001* (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001* (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) |
| Mother's age | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) |
| Father's years of schooling | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.013*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.013*** (0.001) | 0.013*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) |
| Mother's years of schooling | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.003** (0.001) |
| Distance to nearest town (km) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001** (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.002 (0.002) | 0.003 (0.002) | −0.000 (0.002) | 0.000 (0.002) | −0.002 (0.003) | 0.002 (0.002) | ||||||
| Phone access | 0.003 (0.011) | 0.001 (0.013) | 0.011 (0.015) | −0.030** (0.012) | −0.028** (0.014) | −0.029* (0.016) | ||||||
| Distance to railway station (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.002* (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.002 (0.001) | 0.002** (0.001) | 0.002 (0.001) | 0.002* (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Average washing machine ownership | 0.079 | 0.037 | 0.076 | 0.038 | 0.083 | 0.037 | 0.079 | 0.037 | 0.076 | 0.038 | 0.083 | 0.037 |
| Average Yict | 0.819 | 0.806 | 0.812 | 0.806 | 0.827 | 0.807 | 0.152 | 0.194 | 0.185 | 0.226 | 0.110 | 0.152 |
| N | 30,322 | 17,119 | 17,150 | 9,737 | 13,168 | 7,377 | 30,337 | 17,124 | 17,159 | 9,741 | 13,174 | 7,378 |
| R2 | 0.357 | 0.245 | 0.248 | 0.246 | 0.281 | 0.290 | 0.170 | 0.167 | 0.196 | 0.196 | 0.163 | 0.162 |
2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a refrigerator on children's outcomes
| Enrollment | Employment | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Male | Female | All | Male | Female | |||||||
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | |
| First stage | ||||||||||||
| Owns refrigerator (no children) | 0.290*** (0.019) | 0.268*** (0.030) | 0.310*** (0.022) | 0.285*** (0.034) | 0.264*** (0.022) | 0.246*** (0.035) | 0.290*** (0.019) | 0.267*** (0.030) | 0.310*** (0.022) | 0.285*** (0.034) | 0.265*** (0.022) | 0.246*** (0.035) |
| Owns air conditioner | 0.167*** (0.028) | 0.217*** (0.052) | 0.159*** (0.033) | 0.192** (0.077) | 0.174*** (0.028) | 0.256*** (0.052) | 0.167*** (0.028) | 0.217*** (0.052) | 0.160*** (0.033) | 0.192** (0.077) | 0.174*** (0.028) | 0.256*** (0.052) |
| Owns color television | 0.092*** (0.009) | 0.073*** (0.011) | 0.101*** (0.010) | 0.080*** (0.013) | 0.082*** (0.011) | 0.066*** (0.013) | 0.092*** (0.009) | 0.073*** (0.011) | 0.101*** (0.010) | 0.080*** (0.013) | 0.083*** (0.011) | 0.066*** (0.013) |
| F–statistic | 154.95 | 58.22 | 165.63 | 49.05 | 83.00 | 35.51 | 156.18 | 58.14 | 166.03 | 49.01 | 84.50 | 35.49 |
| 2SLS | ||||||||||||
| Own refrigerator | 0.153*** (0.034) | 0.150*** (0.056) | 0.175*** (0.037) | 0.161** (0.062) | 0.127** (0.049) | 0.135* (0.076) | −0.091** (0.036) | −0.065 (0.077) | −0.075* (0.042) | −0.014 (0.081) | −0.106** (0.044) | −0.133 (0.098) |
| Age | 0.142*** (0.018) | 0.169*** (0.024) | 0.163*** (0.023) | 0.199*** (0.031) | 0.112*** (0.027) | 0.134*** (0.038) | −0.065*** (0.017) | −0.065*** (0.025) | −0.096*** (0.023) | −0.095*** (0.032) | 0.009 (0.023) | 0.011 (0.035) |
| Age–squared | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.009*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) |
| Female | −0.016*** (0.005) | −0.030*** (0.008) | −0.056*** (0.005) | −0.051*** (0.007) | ||||||||
| Rural | 0.032*** (0.009) | −0.024 (0.018) | 0.047*** (0.012) | −0.010 (0.023) | 0.008 (0.011) | −0.037 (0.031) | 0.055*** (0.009) | 0.005 (0.024) | 0.051*** (0.010) | 0.016 (0.032) | 0.059*** (0.010) | −0.009 (0.030) |
| Hindu | 0.086*** (0.010) | 0.079*** (0.014) | 0.085*** (0.011) | 0.072*** (0.015) | 0.090*** (0.012) | 0.090*** (0.020) | −0.010 (0.007) | −0.008 (0.011) | −0.021** (0.009) | −0.020 (0.016) | 0.000 (0.008) | 0.004 (0.015) |
| SC or ST | −0.010 (0.006) | −0.017** (0.008) | −0.017** (0.008) | −0.024** (0.010) | −0.001 (0.008) | −0.007 (0.012) | −0.010* (0.006) | −0.009 (0.008) | −0.007 (0.007) | −0.009 (0.010) | −0.014* (0.008) | −0.012 (0.011) |
| Wealth index | 0.048*** (0.011) | 0.038** (0.016) | 0.042*** (0.012) | 0.032* (0.018) | 0.055*** (0.016) | 0.046* (0.023) | −0.040*** (0.010) | −0.038** (0.019) | −0.043*** (0.013) | −0.046** (0.021) | −0.035*** (0.014) | −0.025 (0.024) |
| Father's age | −0.003*** (0.000) | −0.002*** (0.001) | −0.002*** (0.001) | −0.001* (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | 0.001** (0.000) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001* (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) |
| Mother's age | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) |
| Father's years of schooling | 0.011*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.010*** (0.001) | 0.011*** (0.001) | 0.011*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.002** (0.001) | −0.004** (0.001) |
| Mother's years of schooling | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.002) | −0.001 (0.001) | −0.003* (0.001) |
| Distance to nearest town (km) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001** (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.001 (0.002) | 0.002 (0.002) | 0.000 (0.002) | 0.000 (0.002) | −0.001 (0.003) | 0.002 (0.002) | ||||||
| Phone access | 0.006 (0.011) | 0.003 (0.013) | 0.013 (0.015) | −0.032*** (0.012) | −0.028** (0.014) | −0.031** (0.016) | ||||||
| Distance to railway station (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001 (0.001) | 0.002** (0.001) | 0.002 (0.001) | 0.002* (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Average refrigerator ownership | 0.260 | 0.168 | 0.249 | 0.166 | 0.274 | 0.171 | 0.260 | 0.168 | 0.249 | 0.166 | 0.274 | 0.171 |
| Average Yict | 0.819 | 0.806 | 0.812 | 0.806 | 0.827 | 0.806 | 0.152 | 0.194 | 0.185 | 0.226 | 0.110 | 0.152 |
| N | 30,370 | 17,121 | 17,183 | 9,743 | 13,183 | 7,375 | 30,385 | 17,126 | 17,192 | 9,747 | 13,189 | 7,376 |
| R2 | 0.234 | 0.235 | 0.231 | 0.234 | 0.272 | 0.283 | 0.162 | 0.165 | 0.191 | 0.196 | 0.150 | 0.155 |
Summary statistics by ownership of appliance: married women aged 15–59 years
| Variable | Owns washing machine (9.6%) | Does not own washing machine (90.4%) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | Standard deviation | N | Mean | Standard deviation | N | |
| Age, years | 38.367 | 10.624 | 6,809 | 35.83 | 10.671 | 64,205 |
| No. of children | 1.459 | 1.565 | 6,809 | 1.768 | 1.629 | 64,205 |
| Completed primary | 0.873 | 0.333 | 6,801 | 0.52 | 0.500 | 64,006 |
| Years of schooling | 9.936 | 4.723 | 6,801 | 4.806 | 4.675 | 64,006 |
| Currently employed | 0.26 | 0.439 | 6,809 | 0.488 | 0.500 | 64,205 |
| Hindu | 0.718 | 0.450 | 6,809 | 0.822 | 0.382 | 64,205 |
| SC or ST | 0.121 | 0.326 | 6,780 | 0.279 | 0.449 | 64,142 |
| Rural | 0.277 | 0.447 | 6,809 | 0.645 | 0.479 | 64,205 |
| Owns refrigerator | 0.952 | 0.215 | 6,807 | 0.224 | 0.417 | 64,072 |
| Owns color television | 0.970 | 0.171 | 6,807 | 0.533 | 0.499 | 64,107 |
| Wealth index | 2.602 | 0.288 | 6,809 | 1.791 | 0.605 | 64,205 |
2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns an appliance on married women's employment by education
| Washing machine | Refrigerator | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Below primary education | Primary & above | Below primary education | Primary & above | |||||
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | |
| First stage | ||||||||
| Owns washing machine (single women) | 0.394*** (0.026) | 0.303*** (0.037) | 0.472*** (0.019) | 0.520*** (0.041) | ||||
| Owns refrigerator (single women) | 0.336*** (0.018) | 0.309*** (0.025) | 0.350*** (0.015) | 0.354*** (0.026) | ||||
| Owns air conditioner | 0.509*** (0.049) | 0.443*** (0.099) | 0.385*** (0.024) | 0.501*** (0.040) | 0.318*** (0.039) | 0.276*** (0.058) | 0.0915*** (0.017) | 0.148*** (0.035) |
| Owns color television | 0.0102*** (0.003) | 0.00598* (0.003) | −0.000673 (0.006) | −0.00571 (0.006) | 0.100*** (0.009) | 0.0808*** (0.011) | 0.144*** (0.011) | 0.121*** (0.014) |
| F–statistic | 141.1 | 32.11 | 372.77 | 133.3 | 209.87 | 72.14 | 295.98 | 105.74 |
| 2SLS | ||||||||
| Owns washing machine | −0.082 (0.062) | 0.004 (0.120) | 0.005 (0.036) | −0.100 (0.069) | ||||
| Owns refrigerator | −0.184*** (0.054) | −0.090 (0.083) | −0.131*** (0.031) | −0.117* (0.064) | ||||
| Age | 0.058*** (0.002) | 0.065*** (0.002) | 0.048*** (0.002) | 0.061*** (0.003) | 0.057*** (0.002) | 0.064*** (0.002) | 0.047*** (0.002) | 0.061*** (0.003) |
| Age−squared | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.001*** (0.000) |
| Years of schooling | −0.007*** (0.002) | −0.007** (0.003) | 0.003** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.002) | −0.006** (0.002) | −0.006* (0.003) | 0.006*** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.002) |
| Rural | 0.274*** (0.016) | 0.053 (0.033) | 0.221*** (0.016) | 0.020 (0.028) | 0.273*** (0.016) | 0.046 (0.033) | 0.219*** (0.016) | 0.016 (0.030) |
| Hindu | 0.075*** (0.011) | 0.075*** (0.016) | 0.037*** (0.010) | 0.065*** (0.020) | 0.072*** (0.012) | 0.073*** (0.016) | 0.034*** (0.010) | 0.067*** (0.020) |
| SC or ST | 0.012 (0.008) | 0.010 (0.009) | 0.010 (0.009) | 0.015 (0.013) | 0.011 (0.009) | 0.009 (0.009) | 0.005 (0.009) | 0.011 (0.014) |
| Wealth index | −0.114*** (0.009) | −0.077*** (0.010) | −0.153*** (0.008) | −0.128*** (0.013) | −0.077*** (0.013) | −0.059*** (0.017) | −0.104*** (0.013) | −0.100*** (0.022) |
| No. of children (household) | 0.000 (0.002) | −0.005** (0.002) | 0.003 (0.002) | −0.002 (0.003) | 0.001 (0.002) | −0.005* (0.002) | 0.004* (0.002) | −0.001 (0.003) |
| Village controls | ||||||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | −0.001 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.001* (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||
| District to road access (km) | 0.003* (0.002) | 0.003* (0.002) | 0.003* (0.002) | 0.003 (0.002) | ||||
| Phone access | −0.001 (0.012) | −0.035*** (0.013) | −0.003 (0.012) | −0.039*** (0.013) | ||||
| Distance to railway station (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.002** (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.002* (0.001) | ||||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | 0.001* (0.001) | 0.003*** (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.003*** (0.001) | ||||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.001 (0.000) | ||||
| Average appliance ownership | 0.027 | 0.0167 | 0.151 | 0.08 | 0.1313 | 0.099 | 0.425 | 0.305 |
| Average employment | 0.618 | 0.722 | 0.344 | 0.498 | 0.6187 | 0.723 | 0.344 | 0.498 |
| N | 31285 | 20575 | 38875 | 17484 | 31309 | 20581 | 38912 | 17490 |
| R2 | 0.271 | 0.174 | 0.249 | 0.222 | 0.261 | 0.171 | 0.240 | 0.220 |
OLS: effect of living in a household that owns a refrigerator on children's outcomes
| Enrollment | Employment | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All | Male | Female | All | Male | Female | |||||||
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | |
| Owns refrigerator | 0.017** (0.007) | 0.010 (0.010) | 0.015* (0.009) | 0.003 (0.011) | 0.018** (0.009) | 0.018 (0.014) | 0.005 (0.006) | −0.001 (0.010) | 0.006 (0.007) | 0.001 (0.013) | 0.002 (0.008) | −0.005 (0.015) |
| Age | 0.149*** (0.017) | 0.169*** (0.024) | 0.173*** (0.022) | 0.201*** (0.031) | 0.113*** (0.027) | 0.133*** (0.037) | −0.067*** (0.017) | −0.068*** (0.024) | −0.100*** (0.022) | −0.099*** (0.032) | 0.011 (0.022) | 0.015 (0.035) |
| Age–squared | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.009*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) |
| Female | −0.015*** (0.005) | −0.030*** (0.008) | −0.056*** (0.005) | −0.051*** (0.007) | ||||||||
| Rural | 0.029*** (0.008) | −0.036* (0.018) | 0.044*** (0.011) | −0.022 (0.023) | 0.005 (0.010) | −0.047 (0.031) | 0.059*** (0.008) | 0.010 (0.023) | 0.056*** (0.010) | 0.016 (0.031) | 0.061*** (0.010) | 0.007 (0.029) |
| Hindu | 0.080*** (0.009) | 0.074*** (0.014) | 0.077*** (0.011) | 0.066*** (0.014) | 0.085*** (0.012) | 0.084*** (0.020) | −0.004 (0.006) | −0.001 (0.011) | −0.014 (0.009) | −0.013 (0.015) | 0.003 (0.007) | 0.010 (0.013) |
| SC or ST | −0.010* (0.006) | −0.019** (0.008) | −0.016** (0.008) | −0.025** (0.010) | −0.003 (0.008) | −0.010 (0.011) | −0.008 (0.005) | −0.007 (0.008) | −0.007 (0.007) | −0.007 (0.010) | −0.011 (0.007) | −0.007 (0.011) |
| Wealth index | 0.090*** (0.008) | 0.079*** (0.011) | 0.092*** (0.009) | 0.080*** (0.012) | 0.088*** (0.011) | 0.078*** (0.015) | −0.071*** (0.006) | −0.059*** (0.008) | −0.071*** (0.008) | −0.058*** (0.011) | −0.069*** (0.008) | −0.058*** (0.011) |
| Father's age | −0.003*** (0.000) | −0.002*** (0.001) | −0.002*** (0.001) | −0.002* (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | 0.001*** (0.000) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001** (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) |
| Mother's age | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) |
| Father's years of schooling | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.011*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.012*** (0.001) | 0.013*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) |
| Mother's years of schooling | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) | 0.005*** (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.004*** (0.001) |
| Village controls | ||||||||||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.001* (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.002 (0.002) | −0.000 (0.002) | 0.000 (0.002) | −0.002 (0.003) | 0.002 (0.002) | ||||||
| Phone access | 0.003 (0.011) | 0.000 (0.012) | 0.009 (0.015) | −0.032*** (0.012) | −0.029** (0.014) | −0.030* (0.016) | ||||||
| Distance to railway station (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.002 (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | −0.001 (0.001) | −0.000 (0.001) | −0.002 (0.001) | 0.002** (0.001) | 0.002* (0.001) | 0.003** (0.001) | ||||||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Average refrigerator ownership | 0.261 | 0.166 | 0.250 | 0.164 | 0.276 | 0.169 | 0.261 | 0.166 | 0.250 | 0.163 | 0.276 | 0.169 |
| Average Yict | 0.819 | 0.807 | 0.812 | 0.805 | 0.828 | 0.808 | 0.151 | 0.194 | 0.183 | 0.227 | 0.108 | 0.151 |
| N | 31,376 | 17,518 | 17,833 | 10,009 | 13,539 | 7,506 | 31,391 | 17,523 | 17,842 | 10,013 | 13,545 | 7,507 |
| R2 | 0.247 | 0.244 | 0.248 | 0.246 | 0.280 | 0.289 | 0.170 | 0.167 | 0.195 | 0.195 | 0.162 | 0.165 |
Summary statistics of the women in the study, by ownership of refrigerator
| Variable | Owns refrigerator | Does not own refrigerator | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2005 | 2012 | 2005 | 2012 | |
| Urban | 68.62 | 64.3 | 20.95 | 22.07 |
| Mean number of kids in household | 1.358 (1.42) | 1.634 (1.70) | 1.727 (1.60) | 2.194 (2.06) |
| Mean years of education | 8.68 | 8.48 | 3.12 | 3.77 |
| Literate | 85.89 | 85.48 | 43.5 | 50.22 |
| Employment: | ||||
| Work inside the household: | ||||
| Animal care | 12.13 | 11.88 | 32.53 | 25.98 |
| Farm work | 6.11 | 8.35 | 23.42 | 21.78 |
| Family business work | 3.48 | 4.96 | 2.98 | 3.66 |
| Work outside the household: | ||||
| Agricultural labor | 0.39 | 1.11 | 16.68 | 15.73 |
| Nonagricultural labor | 0.34 | 1.94 | 5.06 | 8.92 |
| Salaried position | 6.68 | 7.38 | 2.94 | 3.76 |
| Mean wealth index | 2.519 (0.37) | 2.459 (0.33) | 1.376 (0.59) | 1.517 (0.62) |
| Owns washing machine | 24.94 | 30.87 | 0.2 | 0.62 |
| Owns color television | 88.13 | 96.55 | 15.46 | 49.11 |
| Owns air conditioner | 4.05 | 7.07 | 0.03 | 0.13 |
| N | 8,440 | 13,119 | 36,008 | 29,562 |
2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a refrigerator on married women's employment by job type
| Animal care | Farm work | Agricultural labor | Nonagricultural labor | Salaried post | Family business | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | |
| First stage | ||||||||||||
| Owns refrigerator (single women) | 0.376*** (0.0132) | 0.352*** (0.0204) | 0.376*** (0.0132) | 0.352*** (0.0204) | 0.376*** (0.0132) | 0.352*** (0.0204) | 0.376*** (0.0132) | 0.352*** (0.0204) | 0.376*** (0.0132) | 0.352*** (0.0204) | 0.376*** (0.0132) | 0.352*** (0.0204) |
| Owns air conditioner | 0.158*** (0.0190) | 0.223*** (0.0313) | 0.158*** (0.0190) | 0.223*** (0.0313) | 0.158*** (0.0190) | 0.223*** (0.0313) | 0.158*** (0.0190) | 0.223*** (0.0313) | 0.158*** (0.0190) | 0.223*** (0.0313) | 0.158*** (0.0189) | 0.224*** (0.0314) |
| Owns color television | 0.121*** (0.00848) | 0.0999*** (0.0112) | 0.121*** (0.00848) | 0.0999*** (0.0112) | 0.121*** (0.00848) | 0.0999*** (0.0112) | 0.121*** (0.00848) | 0.0999*** (0.0112) | 0.121*** (0.00848) | 0.0999*** (0.0112) | 0.121*** (0.00848) | 0.100*** (0.0112) |
| F–statistic | 497.52 | 193.73 | 495.87 | 193.8 | 495.88 | 193.82 | 495.68 | 193.6 | 495.54 | 193.74 | 495.69 | 193.82 |
| 2SLS | ||||||||||||
| Owns refrigerator | −0.106*** (0.028) | −0.076 (0.054) | −0.105*** (0.029) | −0.139** (0.057) | 0.100*** (0.019) | 0.021 (0.035) | −0.008 (0.016) | −0.012 (0.030) | −0.008 (0.013) | −0.010 (0.014) | −0.021** (0.009) | −0.007 (0.013) |
| Age | 0.030*** (0.001) | 0.044*** (0.002) | 0.019*** (0.001) | 0.028*** (0.002) | 0.017*** (0.001) | 0.023*** (0.002) | 0.009*** (0.001) | 0.010*** (0.001) | 0.011*** (0.001) | 0.009*** (0.001) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) |
| Age–squared | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) |
| Years of schooling | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.011*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.000) | −0.004*** (0.001) | 0.008*** (0.000) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.001* (0.000) |
| Rural | 0.206*** (0.013) | 0.039* (0.023) | 0.209*** (0.016) | 0.036 (0.023) | 0.050*** (0.010) | −0.012 (0.012) | −0.001 (0.006) | 0.026* (0.015) | −0.034*** (0.004) | −0.026 (0.019) | −0.008** (0.004) | 0.015* (0.008) |
| Hindu | 0.025*** (0.007) | 0.047*** (0.013) | 0.072*** (0.008) | 0.110*** (0.013) | 0.030*** (0.005) | 0.028*** (0.007) | −0.005 (0.004) | −0.013** (0.006) | 0.003 (0.003) | −0.002 (0.004) | −0.004 (0.003) | −0.005 (0.006) |
| SC or ST | −0.040*** (0.007) | −0.050*** (0.009) | −0.053*** (0.008) | −0.072*** (0.010) | 0.077*** (0.007) | 0.102*** (0.008) | 0.022*** (0.004) | 0.029*** (0.005) | 0.023*** (0.003) | 0.017*** (0.003) | −0.009*** (0.003) | −0.007** (0.003) |
| Wealth index | −0.027*** (0.009) | −0.023 (0.015) | −0.019* (0.010) | 0.006 (0.016) | −0.122*** (0.009) | −0.118*** (0.011) | −0.027*** (0.006) | −0.023** (0.009) | −0.009** (0.004) | −0.003 (0.004) | 0.013*** (0.003) | 0.012*** (0.004) |
| No. of children (household) | 0.002 (0.001) | −0.003 (0.002) | 0.003** (0.001) | 0.001 (0.002) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.001** (0.001) | −0.001* (0.001) | −0.001 (0.000) | −0.001** (0.001) |
| Village controls | ||||||||||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | −0.001 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000** (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.000 (0.002) | 0.005*** (0.002) | 0.003** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.002) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | ||||||
| Phone access | −0.027** (0.013) | −0.065*** (0.014) | 0.007 (0.009) | 0.013* (0.007) | 0.003 (0.003) | −0.003 (0.003) | ||||||
| Distance to railway station (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.003*** (0.001) | 0.003*** (0.001) | −0.001** (0.001) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000** (0.000) | −0.001** (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000* (0.000) | 0.001 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000* (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000* (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| N | 70,207 | 38,060 | 70,221 | 38,071 | 70,217 | 38,068 | 70,216 | 38,066 | 70,215 | 38,070 | 70,109 | 38,027 |
| R2 | 0.249 | 0.193 | 0.269 | 0.217 | 0.275 | 0.279 | 0.101 | 0.120 | 0.059 | 0.049 | 0.022 | 0.030 |
2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a washing machine on married women's employment by job type
| Animal care | Farm work | Agricultural labor | Nonagricultural labor | Salaried post | Family business | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | |
| First stage | ||||||||||||
| Owns washing machine (single women) | 0.501*** (0.0171) | 0.485*** (0.0310) | 0.501*** (0.0171) | 0.485*** (0.0310) | 0.501*** (0.0171) | 0.485*** (0.0310) | 0.501*** (0.0171) | 0.485*** (0.0310) | 0.501*** (0.0171) | 0.485*** (0.0311) | 0.502*** (0.0174) | 0.486*** (0.0309) |
| Owns air conditioner | 0.437*** (0.0239) | 0.523*** (0.0450) | 0.437*** (0.0239) | 0.523*** (0.0450) | 0.437*** (0.0239) | 0.523*** (0.0450) | 0.437*** (0.0239) | 0.523*** (0.0450) | 0.437*** (0.0239) | 0.523*** (0.0449) | 0.437*** (0.0240) | 0.523*** (0.0449) |
| Owns color television | 0.003 (0.00409) | 0.000 (0.00407) | 0.003 (0.00409) | 0.000 (0.00407) | 0.003 (0.00409) | 0.000 (0.00407) | 0.003 (0.00409) | 0.000 (0.00407) | 0.003 (0.00409) | 0.000 (0.00407) | 0.003 (0.00409) | 0.000 (0.00404) |
| F–statistic | 638.49 | 146.37 | 638.36 | 146.45 | 638.37 | 146.45 | 638.37 | 146.55 | 637.65 | 145.43 | 638 | 147.85 |
| 2SLS | ||||||||||||
| Owns washing machine | −0.068** (0.027) | −0.136** (0.069) | −0.002 (0.018) | −0.073 (0.051) | 0.141*** (0.015) | 0.098*** (0.022) | −0.016 (0.011) | −0.049*** (0.018) | 0.032** (0.015) | 0.017 (0.020) | −0.023*** (0.008) | −0.016 (0.013) |
| Age | 0.030*** (0.001) | 0.043*** (0.002) | 0.019*** (0.001) | 0.028*** (0.002) | 0.017*** (0.001) | 0.023*** (0.002) | 0.009*** (0.001) | 0.010*** (0.001) | 0.011*** (0.001) | 0.009*** (0.001) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.006*** (0.001) |
| Age–squared | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) | −0.000*** (0.000) |
| Years of schooling | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.008*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.006*** (0.001) | −0.007*** (0.001) | −0.012*** (0.001) | −0.003*** (0.000) | −0.003*** (0.000) | 0.007*** (0.001) | 0.007*** (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.001* (0.000) |
| Rural | 0.206*** (0.013) | 0.040* (0.022) | 0.211*** (0.016) | 0.045** (0.021) | 0.052*** (0.010) | −0.009 (0.011) | −0.001 (0.006) | 0.025* (0.015) | −0.032*** (0.004) | −0.025 (0.019) | −0.008** (0.004) | 0.015* (0.008) |
| Hindu | 0.026*** (0.007) | 0.046*** (0.013) | 0.074*** (0.008) | 0.111*** (0.012) | 0.031*** (0.005) | 0.029*** (0.007) | −0.005 (0.004) | −0.014** (0.006) | 0.003 (0.003) | −0.002 (0.004) | −0.004 (0.003) | −0.005 (0.005) |
| SC or ST | −0.039*** (0.007) | −0.050*** (0.009) | −0.051*** (0.008) | −0.069*** (0.010) | 0.077*** (0.007) | 0.103*** (0.008) | 0.022*** (0.004) | 0.029*** (0.005) | 0.024*** (0.003) | 0.017*** (0.003) | −0.009*** (0.003) | −0.007** (0.003) |
| Wealth index | −0.053*** (0.005) | −0.034*** (0.008) | −0.050*** (0.007) | −0.025*** (0.009) | −0.106*** (0.007) | −0.120*** (0.008) | −0.027*** (0.004) | −0.022*** (0.004) | −0.015*** (0.003) | −0.007*** (0.002) | 0.009*** (0.002) | 0.011*** (0.002) |
| No. of children (household) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.003 (0.002) | 0.003** (0.001) | 0.001 (0.002) | −0.005*** (0.001) | −0.005*** (0.002) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.001 (0.001) | −0.001** (0.001) | −0.001* (0.001) | −0.001 (0.000) | −0.001** (0.001) |
| Village controls | ||||||||||||
| Distance to nearest town (km) | −0.001 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000** (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to road access (km) | 0.000 (0.002) | 0.005*** (0.002) | 0.003** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.002) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | ||||||
| Phone access | −0.025* (0.013) | −0.062*** (0.014) | 0.007 (0.009) | 0.013* (0.007) | 0.003 (0.003) | −0.002 (0.003) | ||||||
| Distance to railway station (km) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to market (km) | 0.003*** (0.001) | 0.003*** (0.001) | −0.001* (0.001) | −0.000 (0.000) | −0.000** (0.000) | −0.001** (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to secondary school (km) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.004*** (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | −0.000* (0.000) | 0.001 (0.000) | ||||||
| Distance to higher secondary school (km) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.000) | −0.000 (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | 0.000* (0.000) | 0.000 (0.000) | ||||||
| N | 70,146 | 38,048 | 70,160 | 38,059 | 70,156 | 38,056 | 70,155 | 38,054 | 70,154 | 38,058 | 70,048 | 38,015 |
| R2 | 0.256 | 0.193 | 0.276 | 0.223 | 0.277 | 0.279 | 0.101 | 0.119 | 0.061 | 0.050 | 0.024 | 0.031 |