The effect of time-saving household appliance ownership on outcomes for children and married women: evidence from India

Variable	Owns washing machine (9.6%)			Does not own washing machine (90.4%)
Variable	Mean	Standard deviation	N	Mean	Standard deviation	N
Age, years	38.367	10.624	6,809	35.83	10.671	64,205
No. of children	1.459	1.565	6,809	1.768	1.629	64,205
Completed primary	0.873	0.333	6,801	0.52	0.500	64,006
Years of schooling	9.936	4.723	6,801	4.806	4.675	64,006
Currently employed	0.26	0.439	6,809	0.488	0.500	64,205
Hindu	0.718	0.450	6,809	0.822	0.382	64,205
SC or ST	0.121	0.326	6,780	0.279	0.449	64,142
Rural	0.277	0.447	6,809	0.645	0.479	64,205
Owns refrigerator	0.952	0.215	6,807	0.224	0.417	64,072
Owns color television	0.970	0.171	6,807	0.533	0.499	64,107
Wealth index	2.602	0.288	6,809	1.791	0.605	64,205

Variable	Owns refrigerator (29.4%)			Does not own refrigerator (70.6%)
Variable	Mean	Standard deviation	N	Mean	Standard deviation	N
Age, years	37.514	10.631	21,650	35.409	10.651	52,105
No. of children	1.524	1.533	21,650	1.838	1.67	52,105
Completed primary	0.800	0.400	21,614	0.457	0.498	51,929
Years of schooling	8.375	4.844	21,614	4.066	4.342	51,929
Currently employed	0.298	0.457	21,650	0.534	0.499	52,105
Hindu	0.770	0.421	21,650	0.832	0.374	52,105
SC or ST	0.164	0.370	21,604	0.301	0.459	52,059
Rural	0.384	0.486	21,650	0.700	0.458	52,105
Owns washing machine	0.311	0.463	20,855	0.007	0.081	50,024
Owns color television	0.927	0.260	21,637	0.423	0.494	52,080
Wealth index	2.449	0.352	21,650	1.638	0.558	52,105

[i] Note: Summary statistics using IHDS data for married India women, aged 15–59 years.

[ii] IHDS, India Human Development Survey; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 2

Summary statistics by ownership of appliance: children 12–18 years of age

Variable	Owns washing machine (7.3%)			Does not own washing machine (92.7%)
Variable	Mean	Standard deviation	N	Mean	Standard deviation	N
Completed primary	0.965	0.185	3,607	0.855	0.352	45,882
Years of schooling	8.660	2.414	3,607	7.216	2.939	45,882
Currently enrolled	0.950	0.219	3,607	0.746	0.435	45,890
Currently employed	0.045	0.207	3,616	0.182	0.386	45,987
Female	0.468	0.499	3,616	0.488	0.500	45,987
Hindu	0.683	0.465	3,616	0.784	0.411	45,987
SC or ST	0.154	0.361	3,605	0.296	0.456	45,964
Rural	0.264	0.441	3,616	0.650	0.477	45,987
Owns refrigerator	0.943	0.232	3,613	0.187	0.390	45,898
Owns color television	0.956	0.205	3,616	0.473	0.499	45,932
Wealth index	2.582	0.299	3,616	1.726	0.596	45,987
Father's age	44.610	6.680	2,492	43.820	8.402	29,733
Father's years of schooling	10.514	4.064	2,490	5.916	4.610	29,680
Mother's age	39.448	7.132	2,700	38.404	8.246	31,803
Mother's years of schooling	8.641	4.897	2,700	3.710	4.270	31,752

Variable	Owns refrigerator (24.3%)			Does not own refrigerator (75.7%)
Variable	Mean	Standard deviation	N	Mean	Standard deviation	N
Completed primary	0.949	0.219	12,500	0.840	0.367	38,976
Years of schooling	8.436	2.490	12,500	6.997	2.961	38,976
Currently enrolled	0.898	0.302	12,500	0.718	0.450	38,985
Currently employed	0.080	0.271	12,521	0.199	0.399	39,069
Female	0.483	0.500	12,521	0.489	0.500	39,069
Hindu	0.731	0.443	12,521	0.792	0.406	39,069
SC or ST	0.192	0.394	12,505	0.311	0.463	39,051
Rural	0.380	0.485	12,521	0.695	0.460	39,069
Owns washing machine	0.284	0.451	11,983	0.006	0.074	37,528
Owns color television	0.912	0.284	12,514	0.376	0.484	39,051
Wealth index	2.421	0.356	12,521	1.598	0.548	39,069
Father's age	44.153	7.466	8,499	43.676	8.638	24,789
Father's years of schooling	9.305	4.282	8,492	5.277	4.416	24,737
Mother's age	38.868	7.594	9,187	38.254	8.435	26,385
Mother's years of schooling	7.058	4.856	9,181	3.118	3.911	26,337

[i] Note: Summary statistics for children, using IHDS data.

[ii] IHDS, India Human Development Survey; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 3

OLS: effect of living in a household that owns an appliance on married women's employment

	Washing machine		Refrigerator
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Owns washing machine	0.030^*** (0.009)	0.004 (0.018)
Owns refrigerator			−0.001 (0.007)	−0.010 (0.011)
Age	0.054^*** (0.002)	0.064^*** (0.002)	0.054^*** (0.002)	0.063^*** (0.002)
Age-squared	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)
Years of schooling	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.012^*** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.012^*** (0.001)
Rural	0.244^*** (0.014)	0.043^* (0.025)	0.246^*** (0.014)	0.043^* (0.025)
Hindu	0.060^*** (0.009)	0.078^*** (0.014)	0.060^*** (0.009)	0.079^*** (0.014)
SC or ST	0.015^** (0.007)	0.013 (0.009)	0.014^** (0.007)	0.013 (0.009)
Wealth index	−0.146^*** (0.006)	−0.112^*** (0.008)	−0.144^*** (0.006)	−0.110^*** (0.008)
No. of children (household)	0.000 (0.002)	−0.004^* (0.002)	−0.000 (0.002)	−0.005^** (0.002)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)
Distance to road access (km)		0.003^** (0.001)		0.003^* (0.001)
Phone access		−0.014 (0.011)		−0.013 (0.011)
Distance to railway station (km)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.002^** (0.001)		0.002^*** (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		0.002^*** (0.001)		0.003^*** (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Average appliance ownership	0.096	0.046	0.294	0.191
Average employment	0.466	0.619	0.465	0.619
N	70,263	38,109	73,078	39,398
R²	0.303	0.228	0.302	0.225

Notes: All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

OLS, ordinary least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 4

OLS: effect of living in a household that owns a washing machine on children's outcomes

	Enrollment						Employment
	All		Male		Female		All		Male		Female
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
Owns washing machine	0.001 (0.008)	0.019 (0.013)	−0.004 (0.011)	0.018 (0.015)	0.007 (0.010)	0.024 (0.019)	−0.004 (0.007)	−0.025^* (0.014)	−0.006 (0.010)	−0.024 (0.020)	−0.004 (0.009)	−0.023 (0.018)
Age	0.142^*** (0.017)	0.168^*** (0.024)	0.167^*** (0.022)	0.202^*** (0.030)	0.108^*** (0.027)	0.129^*** (0.038)	−0.064^*** (0.017)	−0.062^** (0.025)	−0.096^*** (0.023)	−0.092^*** (0.032)	0.012 (0.023)	0.016 (0.035)
Age–squared	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.009^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Female	−0.016^*** (0.005)	−0.032^*** (0.008)					−0.055^*** (0.005)	−0.051^*** (0.007)
Rural	0.030^*** (0.008)	−0.034^* (0.018)	0.046^*** (0.011)	−0.019 (0.023)	0.006 (0.010)	−0.048 (0.031)	0.058^*** (0.009)	0.009 (0.023)	0.054^*** (0.011)	0.017 (0.031)	0.062^*** (0.010)	0.003 (0.030)
Hindu	0.080^*** (0.010)	0.073^*** (0.014)	0.077^*** (0.011)	0.065^*** (0.014)	0.085^*** (0.012)	0.084^*** (0.020)	−0.007 (0.006)	−0.005 (0.010)	−0.019^** (0.009)	−0.020 (0.015)	0.003 (0.007)	0.010 (0.013)
SC or ST	−0.011^* (0.006)	−0.020^*** (0.008)	−0.018^** (0.008)	−0.027^*** (0.009)	−0.003 (0.008)	−0.010 (0.011)	−0.009 (0.006)	−0.007 (0.008)	−0.007 (0.007)	−0.008 (0.010)	−0.013^* (0.007)	−0.009 (0.011)
Wealth index	0.096^*** (0.008)	0.079^*** (0.011)	0.096^*** (0.009)	0.076^*** (0.011)	0.095^*** (0.010)	0.083^*** (0.014)	−0.067^*** (0.006)	−0.054^*** (0.008)	−0.065^*** (0.008)	−0.050^*** (0.011)	−0.068^*** (0.008)	−0.058^*** (0.011)
Father's age	−0.003^*** (0.000)	−0.002^*** (0.001)	−0.002^*** (0.001)	−0.002^* (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	0.001^** (0.000)	0.001 (0.001)	0.001^** (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	0.001^* (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Mother's age	0.000 (0.000)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.000)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)
Father's years of schooling	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.013^*** (0.001)	0.013^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)
Mother's years of schooling	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		0.000 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001^** (0.001)
Distance to road access (km)		0.001 (0.002)		0.003 (0.002)		−0.000 (0.002)		0.000 (0.002)		−0.002 (0.003)		0.002 (0.002)
Phone access		0.003 (0.011)		0.001 (0.013)		0.010 (0.015)		−0.030^** (0.012)		−0.027^* (0.014)		−0.029^* (0.016)
Distance to railway station (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)		0.002^* (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		−0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.002 (0.001)		0.002^** (0.001)		0.002 (0.001)		0.002^* (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.000)
Average washing machine ownership	0.079	0.037	0.076	0.038	0.083	0.037	0.079	0.037	0.076	0.038	0.083	0.037
Average Y_ict	0.819	0.806	0.813	0.806	0.827	0.807	0.152	0.194	0.184	0.226	0.110	0.152
N	30,348	17,127	17,168	9,744	13,176	7,378	30,363	17,132	17,177	9,748	13,182	7,379
R²	0.248	0.245	0.249	0.246	0.281	0.290	0.170	0.167	0.196	0.196	0.163	0.166

Notes: All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

OLS, ordinary least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 5

OLS: effect of living in a household that owns a refrigerator on children's outcomes

	Enrollment						Employment
	All		Male		Female		All		Male		Female
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
Owns refrigerator	0.017^** (0.007)	0.010 (0.010)	0.015^* (0.009)	0.003 (0.011)	0.018^** (0.009)	0.018 (0.014)	0.005 (0.006)	−0.001 (0.010)	0.006 (0.007)	0.001 (0.013)	0.002 (0.008)	−0.005 (0.015)
Age	0.149^*** (0.017)	0.169^*** (0.024)	0.173^*** (0.022)	0.201^*** (0.031)	0.113^*** (0.027)	0.133^*** (0.037)	−0.067^*** (0.017)	−0.068^*** (0.024)	−0.100^*** (0.022)	−0.099^*** (0.032)	0.011 (0.022)	0.015 (0.035)
Age–squared	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.009^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Female	−0.015^*** (0.005)	−0.030^*** (0.008)					−0.056^*** (0.005)	−0.051^*** (0.007)
Rural	0.029^*** (0.008)	−0.036^* (0.018)	0.044^*** (0.011)	−0.022 (0.023)	0.005 (0.010)	−0.047 (0.031)	0.059^*** (0.008)	0.010 (0.023)	0.056^*** (0.010)	0.016 (0.031)	0.061^*** (0.010)	0.007 (0.029)
Hindu	0.080^*** (0.009)	0.074^*** (0.014)	0.077^*** (0.011)	0.066^*** (0.014)	0.085^*** (0.012)	0.084^*** (0.020)	−0.004 (0.006)	−0.001 (0.011)	−0.014 (0.009)	−0.013 (0.015)	0.003 (0.007)	0.010 (0.013)
SC or ST	−0.010^* (0.006)	−0.019^** (0.008)	−0.016^** (0.008)	−0.025^** (0.010)	−0.003 (0.008)	−0.010 (0.011)	−0.008 (0.005)	−0.007 (0.008)	−0.007 (0.007)	−0.007 (0.010)	−0.011 (0.007)	−0.007 (0.011)
Wealth index	0.090^*** (0.008)	0.079^*** (0.011)	0.092^*** (0.009)	0.080^*** (0.012)	0.088^*** (0.011)	0.078^*** (0.015)	−0.071^*** (0.006)	−0.059^*** (0.008)	−0.071^*** (0.008)	−0.058^*** (0.011)	−0.069^*** (0.008)	−0.058^*** (0.011)
Father's age	−0.003^*** (0.000)	−0.002^*** (0.001)	−0.002^*** (0.001)	−0.002^* (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	0.001^*** (0.000)	0.001 (0.001)	0.001^** (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	0.001^** (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Mother's age	0.000 (0.000)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.000)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)
Father's years of schooling	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.011^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.013^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)
Mother's years of schooling	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		0.000 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001^* (0.001)
Distance to road access (km)		0.001 (0.001)		0.002 (0.002)		−0.000 (0.002)		0.000 (0.002)		−0.002 (0.003)		0.002 (0.002)
Phone access		0.003 (0.011)		0.000 (0.012)		0.009 (0.015)		−0.032^*** (0.012)		−0.029^** (0.014)		−0.030^* (0.016)
Distance to railway station (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)		0.002 (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		−0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.002 (0.001)		0.002^** (0.001)		0.002^* (0.001)		0.003^** (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.000)
Average refrigerator ownership	0.261	0.166	0.250	0.164	0.276	0.169	0.261	0.166	0.250	0.163	0.276	0.169
Average Y_ict	0.819	0.807	0.812	0.805	0.828	0.808	0.151	0.194	0.183	0.227	0.108	0.151
N	31,376	17,518	17,833	10,009	13,539	7,506	31,391	17,523	17,842	10,013	13,545	7,507
R²	0.247	0.244	0.248	0.246	0.280	0.289	0.170	0.167	0.195	0.195	0.162	0.165

Notes: All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

OLS, ordinary least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 6

2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns an appliance on married women's employment

	Washing machine		Refrigerator
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
First stage
Owns washing machine (single women)	0.501^*** (0.017)	0.485^*** (0.031)
Owns refrigerator (single women)			0.376^*** (0.013)	0.352^*** (0.020)
Owns air conditioner	0.437^*** (0.024)	0.523^*** (0.0450)	0.158^*** (0.019)	0.223^*** (0.031)
Owns color television	0.003 (0.004)	0.000 (0.004)	0.121^*** (0.008)	0.100^*** (0.011)
F–statistic	638.36	146.45	495.87	193.80
2SLS
Owns washing machine	0.030 (0.035)	−0.074 (0.061)
Owns refrigerator			−0.102^*** (0.031)	−0.097^* (0.055)
Age	0.054^*** (0.002)	0.064^*** (0.002)	0.054^*** (0.002)	0.064^*** (0.002)
Age–squared	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)
Years of schooling	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.012^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.011^*** (0.001)
Rural	0.242^*** (0.014)	0.041 (0.025)	0.239^*** (0.014)	0.036 (0.026)
Hindu	0.060^*** (0.009)	0.075^*** (0.014)	0.057^*** (0.009)	0.074^*** (0.014)
SC or ST	0.015^** (0.007)	0.012 (0.009)	0.013^* (0.007)	0.010 (0.009)
Wealth index	−0.140^*** (0.007)	−0.102^*** (0.009)	−0.107^*** (0.010)	−0.082^*** (0.016)
No. of children (household)	0.000 (0.002)	−0.004^* (0.002)	0.001 (0.002)	−0.004^* (0.002)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)
Distance to road access (km)		0.003^** (0.001)		0.003^* (0.001)
Phone access		−0.014 (0.011)		−0.016 (0.011)
Distance to railway station (km)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.002^** (0.001)		0.001^** (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		0.002^*** (0.001)		0.002^*** (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Average appliance ownership	0.096	0.046	0.294	0.194
Average employment	0.466	0.619	0.467	0.619
N	70,160	38,059	70,221	38,071
R²	0.303	0.227	0.298	0.225

Notes: All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

2SLS, two–stage least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 7

2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a washing machine on children's outcomes

	Enrollment						Employment
	All		Male		Female		All		Male		Female
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
First stage
Owns washing machine (no children)	0.379^*** (0.027)	0.406^*** (0.042)	0.405^*** (0.026)	0.454^*** (0.045)	0.348^*** (0.034)	0.348^*** (0.055)	0.379^*** (0.027)	0.406^*** (0.042)	0.405^*** (0.026)	0.454^*** (0.045)	0.348^*** (0.034)	0.348^*** (0.055)
Owns air conditioner	0.483^*** (0.028)	0.496^*** (0.075)	0.460^*** (0.035)	0.499^*** (0.093)	0.515^*** (0.033)	0.504^*** (0.091)	0.484^*** (0.028)	0.496^*** (0.075)	0.460^*** (0.035)	0.499^*** (0.093)	0.515^*** (0.033)	0.504^*** (0.091)
Owns color television	−0.002 (0.005)	0.004 (0.005)	0.005 (0.005)	0.008^* (0.005)	−0.009 (0.007)	−0.002 (0.006)	−0.002 (0.005)	0.004 (0.005)	0.005 (0.005)	0.008^* (0.005)	−0.009 (0.007)	−0.001 (0.006)
F–statistic	108.67	17.72	156.08	50.09	175.99	30.48	207.77	55.00	156.10	50.08	176.29	30.48
2SLS
Owns washing machine	−0.014 (0.022)	0.034 (0.062)	−0.016 (0.028)	0.022 (0.064)	−0.020 (0.030)	0.036 (0.087)	0.009 (0.021)	−0.055 (0.067)	0.004 (0.032)	−0.002 (0.074)	−0.003 (0.022)	−0.162^* (0.087)
Age	0.143^*** (0.017)	0.169^*** (0.024)	0.168^*** (0.022)	0.203^*** (0.030)	0.109^*** (0.027)	0.129^*** (0.038)	−0.065^*** (0.017)	−0.063^** (0.025)	−0.098^*** (0.023)	−0.094^*** (0.032)	0.012 (0.023)	0.019 (0.035)
Age–squared	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.009^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Female	−0.016^*** (0.005)	−0.032^*** (0.008)					−0.055^*** (0.005)	−0.051^*** (0.007)
Rural	0.029^*** (0.008)	−0.033^* (0.019)	0.045^*** (0.012)	−0.019 (0.023)	0.004 (0.011)	−0.047 (0.033)	0.058^*** (0.009)	0.006 (0.024)	0.054^*** (0.010)	0.017 (0.031)	0.062^*** (0.010)	−0.009 (0.034)
Hindu	0.081^*** (0.010)	0.074^*** (0.014)	0.078^*** (0.011)	0.066^*** (0.015)	0.085^*** (0.013)	0.086^*** (0.020)	−0.007 (0.006)	−0.007 (0.011)	−0.019^** (0.009)	−0.021 (0.015)	0.003 (0.007)	0.006 (0.014)
SC or ST	−0.011^* (0.006)	−0.020^*** (0.008)	−0.018^** (0.008)	−0.027^*** (0.009)	−0.002 (0.008)	−0.010 (0.012)	−0.009 (0.006)	−0.008 (0.008)	−0.007 (0.007)	−0.008 (0.010)	−0.013^* (0.007)	−0.010 (0.011)
Wealth index	0.090^*** (0.007)	0.072^*** (0.010)	0.090^*** (0.008)	0.069^*** (0.011)	0.091^*** (0.010)	0.076^*** (0.015)	−0.065^*** (0.006)	−0.050^*** (0.009)	−0.063^*** (0.008)	−0.050^*** (0.011)	−0.064^*** (0.008)	−0.046^*** (0.012)
Father's age	−0.003^*** (0.000)	−0.002^*** (0.001)	−0.002^*** (0.001)	−0.002^* (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	0.001^** (0.000)	0.001 (0.001)	0.001^* (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	0.001^* (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Mother's age	0.000 (0.000)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.000)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)
Father's years of schooling	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.013^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.013^*** (0.001)	0.013^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)
Mother's years of schooling	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.003^** (0.001)
Distance to nearest town (km)		0.000 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001^** (0.001)
Distance to road access (km)		0.002 (0.002)		0.003 (0.002)		−0.000 (0.002)		0.000 (0.002)		−0.002 (0.003)		0.002 (0.002)
Phone access		0.003 (0.011)		0.001 (0.013)		0.011 (0.015)		−0.030^** (0.012)		−0.028^** (0.014)		−0.029^* (0.016)
Distance to railway station (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)		0.002^* (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.002 (0.001)		0.002^** (0.001)		0.002 (0.001)		0.002^* (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.000)
Average washing machine ownership	0.079	0.037	0.076	0.038	0.083	0.037	0.079	0.037	0.076	0.038	0.083	0.037
Average Y_ict	0.819	0.806	0.812	0.806	0.827	0.807	0.152	0.194	0.185	0.226	0.110	0.152
N	30,322	17,119	17,150	9,737	13,168	7,377	30,337	17,124	17,159	9,741	13,174	7,378
R²	0.357	0.245	0.248	0.246	0.281	0.290	0.170	0.167	0.196	0.196	0.163	0.162

Notes: All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

2SLS, two–stage least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 8

2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a refrigerator on children's outcomes

	Enrollment						Employment
	All		Male		Female		All		Male		Female
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
First stage
Owns refrigerator (no children)	0.290^*** (0.019)	0.268^*** (0.030)	0.310^*** (0.022)	0.285^*** (0.034)	0.264^*** (0.022)	0.246^*** (0.035)	0.290^*** (0.019)	0.267^*** (0.030)	0.310^*** (0.022)	0.285^*** (0.034)	0.265^*** (0.022)	0.246^*** (0.035)
Owns air conditioner	0.167^*** (0.028)	0.217^*** (0.052)	0.159^*** (0.033)	0.192^** (0.077)	0.174^*** (0.028)	0.256^*** (0.052)	0.167^*** (0.028)	0.217^*** (0.052)	0.160^*** (0.033)	0.192^** (0.077)	0.174^*** (0.028)	0.256^*** (0.052)
Owns color television	0.092^*** (0.009)	0.073^*** (0.011)	0.101^*** (0.010)	0.080^*** (0.013)	0.082^*** (0.011)	0.066^*** (0.013)	0.092^*** (0.009)	0.073^*** (0.011)	0.101^*** (0.010)	0.080^*** (0.013)	0.083^*** (0.011)	0.066^*** (0.013)
F–statistic	154.95	58.22	165.63	49.05	83.00	35.51	156.18	58.14	166.03	49.01	84.50	35.49
2SLS
Own refrigerator	0.153^*** (0.034)	0.150^*** (0.056)	0.175^*** (0.037)	0.161^** (0.062)	0.127^** (0.049)	0.135^* (0.076)	−0.091^** (0.036)	−0.065 (0.077)	−0.075^* (0.042)	−0.014 (0.081)	−0.106^** (0.044)	−0.133 (0.098)
Age	0.142^*** (0.018)	0.169^*** (0.024)	0.163^*** (0.023)	0.199^*** (0.031)	0.112^*** (0.027)	0.134^*** (0.038)	−0.065^*** (0.017)	−0.065^*** (0.025)	−0.096^*** (0.023)	−0.095^*** (0.032)	0.009 (0.023)	0.011 (0.035)
Age–squared	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.009^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Female	−0.016^*** (0.005)	−0.030^*** (0.008)					−0.056^*** (0.005)	−0.051^*** (0.007)
Rural	0.032^*** (0.009)	−0.024 (0.018)	0.047^*** (0.012)	−0.010 (0.023)	0.008 (0.011)	−0.037 (0.031)	0.055^*** (0.009)	0.005 (0.024)	0.051^*** (0.010)	0.016 (0.032)	0.059^*** (0.010)	−0.009 (0.030)
Hindu	0.086^*** (0.010)	0.079^*** (0.014)	0.085^*** (0.011)	0.072^*** (0.015)	0.090^*** (0.012)	0.090^*** (0.020)	−0.010 (0.007)	−0.008 (0.011)	−0.021^** (0.009)	−0.020 (0.016)	0.000 (0.008)	0.004 (0.015)
SC or ST	−0.010 (0.006)	−0.017^** (0.008)	−0.017^** (0.008)	−0.024^** (0.010)	−0.001 (0.008)	−0.007 (0.012)	−0.010^* (0.006)	−0.009 (0.008)	−0.007 (0.007)	−0.009 (0.010)	−0.014^* (0.008)	−0.012 (0.011)
Wealth index	0.048^*** (0.011)	0.038^** (0.016)	0.042^*** (0.012)	0.032^* (0.018)	0.055^*** (0.016)	0.046^* (0.023)	−0.040^*** (0.010)	−0.038^** (0.019)	−0.043^*** (0.013)	−0.046^** (0.021)	−0.035^*** (0.014)	−0.025 (0.024)
Father's age	−0.003^*** (0.000)	−0.002^*** (0.001)	−0.002^*** (0.001)	−0.001^* (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	0.001^** (0.000)	0.001 (0.001)	0.001^** (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	0.001^* (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)
Mother's age	0.000 (0.000)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.000 (0.000)	0.001 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)	0.000 (0.001)	−0.000 (0.001)
Father's years of schooling	0.011^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	0.010^*** (0.001)	0.011^*** (0.001)	0.011^*** (0.001)	0.012^*** (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.002^** (0.001)	−0.004^** (0.001)
Mother's years of schooling	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.005^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.002)	−0.001 (0.001)	−0.003^* (0.001)
Distance to nearest town (km)		0.000 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001^** (0.001)
Distance to road access (km)		0.001 (0.002)		0.002 (0.002)		0.000 (0.002)		0.000 (0.002)		−0.001 (0.003)		0.002 (0.002)
Phone access		0.006 (0.011)		0.003 (0.013)		0.013 (0.015)		−0.032^*** (0.012)		−0.028^** (0.014)		−0.031^** (0.016)
Distance to railway station (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.000 (0.001)		−0.001 (0.001)		0.002^** (0.001)		0.002 (0.001)		0.002^* (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.000)
Average refrigerator ownership	0.260	0.168	0.249	0.166	0.274	0.171	0.260	0.168	0.249	0.166	0.274	0.171
Average Y_ict	0.819	0.806	0.812	0.806	0.827	0.806	0.152	0.194	0.185	0.226	0.110	0.152
N	30,370	17,121	17,183	9,743	13,183	7,375	30,385	17,126	17,192	9,747	13,189	7,376
R²	0.234	0.235	0.231	0.234	0.272	0.283	0.162	0.165	0.191	0.196	0.150	0.155

Notes: All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

2SLS, two–stage least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 9

2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a washing machine on married women's work

	Work inside household		Work outside household
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
First stage
Owns washing machine (single women)	0.501^*** (0.0171)	0.485^*** (0.0310)	0.501^*** (0.0171)	0.485^*** (0.0310)
Owns air conditioner	0.437^*** (0.0239)	0.523^*** (0.0450)	0.437^*** (0.0239)	0.523^*** (0.0450)
Owns color television	0.00278 (0.00409)	0.0000 (0.00407)	0.00278 (0.00409)	0.0000 (0.00407)
F–statistic	638.36	146.45	638.36	146.45
2SLS
Owns washing machine	−0.068^** (0.027)	−0.147^** (0.067)	0.154^*** (0.023)	0.080^** (0.033)
Age	0.037^*** (0.002)	0.050^*** (0.002)	0.035^*** (0.001)	0.039^*** (0.002)
Age–squared	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)
Years of schooling	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.010^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.001)
Rural	0.286^*** (0.014)	0.076^*** (0.024)	0.014 (0.010)	−0.014 (0.019)
Hindu	0.054^*** (0.009)	0.088^*** (0.016)	0.027^*** (0.006)	0.013 (0.009)
SC or ST	−0.064^*** (0.008)	−0.078^*** (0.010)	0.113^*** (0.008)	0.137^*** (0.009)
Wealth index	−0.062^*** (0.007)	−0.029^*** (0.009)	−0.140^*** (0.007)	−0.140^*** (0.009)
No. of children (household)	0.004^** (0.002)	−0.000 (0.002)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.002)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		−0.001 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to road access (km)		0.003^** (0.002)		0.002 (0.001)
Phone access		−0.043^*** (0.013)		0.016 (0.010)
Distance to railway station (km)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.003^*** (0.001)		−0.002^*** (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		0.003^*** (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)
N	70,160	38,059	70,160	38,059
R²	0.288	0.191	0.206	0.249

Notes: Work inside household includes the following employment categories: household farm work, animal care, and work in the family business. Work outside household includes the following employment categories: agricultural labor, nonagricultural labor, and salaried work. All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

2SLS, two–stage least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table 10

2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a refrigerator on married women's work

	Work inside household		Work outside household
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
First stage
Owns Refrigerator (single women)	0.376^*** (0.0132)	0.352^*** (0.0204)	0.376^*** (0.0132)	0.352^*** (0.0204)
Owns air conditioner	0.158^*** (0.0190)	0.223^*** (0.0313)	0.158^*** (0.0190)	0.223^*** (0.0313)
Owns color television	0.121^*** (0.00848)	0.0999^*** (0.0112)	0.121^*** (0.00848)	0.0999^*** (0.0112)
F–statistic	495.87	193.8	495.87	193.8
2SLS
Owns refrigerator	−0.145^*** (0.030)	−0.106^* (0.058)	0.082^*** (0.026)	0.010 (0.045)
Age	0.037^*** (0.002)	0.050^*** (0.002)	0.034^*** (0.001)	0.038^*** (0.002)
Age–squared	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)
Years of schooling	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.009^*** (0.001)	−0.002^** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.001)
Rural	0.285^*** (0.014)	0.072^*** (0.026)	0.010 (0.011)	−0.016 (0.020)
Hindu	0.053^*** (0.009)	0.089^*** (0.016)	0.026^*** (0.006)	0.012 (0.009)
SC or ST	−0.065^*** (0.008)	−0.079^*** (0.010)	0.113^*** (0.008)	0.136^*** (0.009)
Wealth index	−0.025^** (0.010)	−0.012 (0.016)	−0.150^*** (0.010)	−0.136^*** (0.014)
No. of children (household)	0.004^*** (0.002)	−0.000 (0.002)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.002)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		−0.001 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to road access (km)		0.003^* (0.002)		0.002 (0.002)
Phone access		−0.046^*** (0.013)		0.016 (0.010)
Distance to railway station (km)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.003^*** (0.001)		−0.002^*** (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		0.003^*** (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)
N	70,160	38,059	70,160	38,059
R²	0.288	0.191	0.206	0.249

Notes: Work inside household includes the following employment categories: household farm work, animal care, and work in the family business. Work outside household includes the employment categories agricultural labor, nonagricultural labor, and salaried work. All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

2SLS, two–stage least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table A1

Summary statistics of the women in the study, by marital status

Variable	Married women aged 15–59 years		Single women aged 15–59 years
Variable	2005	2012	2005	2012
Urban	27.76	32.97	31.98	34.04
Age	35.15	36.64	25.16	26.72
Hindu	82.77	82.4	78.43	79.64
Mean number of kids in the household	1.674 (1.585)	2.049 (1.99)	0.796 (1.242)	1.639 (1.909)
Education:
Mean years of schooling	3.921	4.988	6.46	7.46
Literate	49.59	59.32	72.69	77.35
Employment:
Work inside the household:
Animal care	29.59	22.34	17.47	11.91
Farm work	20.93	18.31	9.94	8.92
Family business work	3.05	3.99	2.31	2.72
Work outside the household:
Agricultural labor	14.38	11.96	9.03	8.24
Nonagricultural labor	4.39	7.12	3.44	5.06
Salaried position	3.47	4.69	5.36	6.85
Employment rate	51.73	48.25	35.64	33.63
Rural	63.71	60.48	43.3	39.09
Urban	20.57	23.37	19.34	23.07
Mean wealth index	1.537 (0.687)	1.760 (0.693)	1.607 (0.679)	1.757 (0.674)
N	45,538	42,715	18,727	20,937

[i] Note: Summary statistics for Indian women using IHDS data.

[ii] IHDS, India Human Development Survey.

Table A2

Summary statistics of the women in the study, by ownership of refrigerator

Variable	Owns refrigerator		Does not own refrigerator
Variable	2005	2012	2005	2012
Urban	68.62	64.3	20.95	22.07
Mean number of kids in household	1.358 (1.42)	1.634 (1.70)	1.727 (1.60)	2.194 (2.06)
Mean years of education	8.68	8.48	3.12	3.77
Literate	85.89	85.48	43.5	50.22
Employment:
Work inside the household:
Animal care	12.13	11.88	32.53	25.98
Farm work	6.11	8.35	23.42	21.78
Family business work	3.48	4.96	2.98	3.66
Work outside the household:
Agricultural labor	0.39	1.11	16.68	15.73
Nonagricultural labor	0.34	1.94	5.06	8.92
Salaried position	6.68	7.38	2.94	3.76
Mean wealth index	2.519 (0.37)	2.459 (0.33)	1.376 (0.59)	1.517 (0.62)
Owns washing machine	24.94	30.87	0.2	0.62
Owns color television	88.13	96.55	15.46	49.11
Owns air conditioner	4.05	7.07	0.03	0.13
N	8,440	13,119	36,008	29,562

[i] Note: Summary statistics for Indian women using IHDS data.

[ii] IHDS, India Human Development Survey.

Table A3

2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns an appliance on married women's employment by education

	Washing machine				Refrigerator
	Below primary education		Primary & above		Below primary education		Primary & above
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
First stage
Owns washing machine (single women)	0.394^*** (0.026)	0.303^*** (0.037)	0.472^*** (0.019)	0.520^*** (0.041)
Owns refrigerator (single women)					0.336^*** (0.018)	0.309^*** (0.025)	0.350^*** (0.015)	0.354^*** (0.026)
Owns air conditioner	0.509^*** (0.049)	0.443^*** (0.099)	0.385^*** (0.024)	0.501^*** (0.040)	0.318^*** (0.039)	0.276^*** (0.058)	0.0915^*** (0.017)	0.148^*** (0.035)
Owns color television	0.0102^*** (0.003)	0.00598^* (0.003)	−0.000673 (0.006)	−0.00571 (0.006)	0.100^*** (0.009)	0.0808^*** (0.011)	0.144^*** (0.011)	0.121^*** (0.014)
F–statistic	141.1	32.11	372.77	133.3	209.87	72.14	295.98	105.74
2SLS
Owns washing machine	−0.082 (0.062)	0.004 (0.120)	0.005 (0.036)	−0.100 (0.069)
Owns refrigerator					−0.184^*** (0.054)	−0.090 (0.083)	−0.131^*** (0.031)	−0.117^* (0.064)
Age	0.058^*** (0.002)	0.065^*** (0.002)	0.048^*** (0.002)	0.061^*** (0.003)	0.057^*** (0.002)	0.064^*** (0.002)	0.047^*** (0.002)	0.061^*** (0.003)
Age−squared	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)	−0.001^*** (0.000)
Years of schooling	−0.007^*** (0.002)	−0.007^** (0.003)	0.003^** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.002)	−0.006^** (0.002)	−0.006^* (0.003)	0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.002)
Rural	0.274^*** (0.016)	0.053 (0.033)	0.221^*** (0.016)	0.020 (0.028)	0.273^*** (0.016)	0.046 (0.033)	0.219^*** (0.016)	0.016 (0.030)
Hindu	0.075^*** (0.011)	0.075^*** (0.016)	0.037^*** (0.010)	0.065^*** (0.020)	0.072^*** (0.012)	0.073^*** (0.016)	0.034^*** (0.010)	0.067^*** (0.020)
SC or ST	0.012 (0.008)	0.010 (0.009)	0.010 (0.009)	0.015 (0.013)	0.011 (0.009)	0.009 (0.009)	0.005 (0.009)	0.011 (0.014)
Wealth index	−0.114^*** (0.009)	−0.077^*** (0.010)	−0.153^*** (0.008)	−0.128^*** (0.013)	−0.077^*** (0.013)	−0.059^*** (0.017)	−0.104^*** (0.013)	−0.100^*** (0.022)
No. of children (household)	0.000 (0.002)	−0.005^** (0.002)	0.003 (0.002)	−0.002 (0.003)	0.001 (0.002)	−0.005^* (0.002)	0.004^* (0.002)	−0.001 (0.003)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		−0.001 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.001^* (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
District to road access (km)		0.003^* (0.002)		0.003^* (0.002)		0.003^* (0.002)		0.003 (0.002)
Phone access		−0.001 (0.012)		−0.035^*** (0.013)		−0.003 (0.012)		−0.039^*** (0.013)
Distance to railway station (km)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.001 (0.001)		0.002^** (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.002^* (0.001)
Distance to secondary school (km)		0.001^* (0.001)		0.003^*** (0.001)		0.001 (0.001)		0.003^*** (0.001)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.001 (0.000)
Average appliance ownership	0.027	0.0167	0.151	0.08	0.1313	0.099	0.425	0.305
Average employment	0.618	0.722	0.344	0.498	0.6187	0.723	0.344	0.498
N	31285	20575	38875	17484	31309	20581	38912	17490
R²	0.271	0.174	0.249	0.222	0.261	0.171	0.240	0.220

Notes: Columns 1–4 show the results for ownership of washing machine for women with lower–than–primary level of education (Columns 1 and 2) and for women with education level of primary and above (Columns 3 and 4). Similarly, Columns 5–8 show the results for refrigerator ownership for women with varying levels of education. All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

2SLS, two–stage least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table A4

2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a washing machine on married women's employment by job type

	Animal care		Farm work		Agricultural labor		Nonagricultural labor		Salaried post		Family business
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
First stage
Owns washing machine (single women)	0.501^*** (0.0171)	0.485^*** (0.0310)	0.501^*** (0.0171)	0.485^*** (0.0310)	0.501^*** (0.0171)	0.485^*** (0.0310)	0.501^*** (0.0171)	0.485^*** (0.0310)	0.501^*** (0.0171)	0.485^*** (0.0311)	0.502^*** (0.0174)	0.486^*** (0.0309)
Owns air conditioner	0.437^*** (0.0239)	0.523^*** (0.0450)	0.437^*** (0.0239)	0.523^*** (0.0450)	0.437^*** (0.0239)	0.523^*** (0.0450)	0.437^*** (0.0239)	0.523^*** (0.0450)	0.437^*** (0.0239)	0.523^*** (0.0449)	0.437^*** (0.0240)	0.523^*** (0.0449)
Owns color television	0.003 (0.00409)	0.000 (0.00407)	0.003 (0.00409)	0.000 (0.00407)	0.003 (0.00409)	0.000 (0.00407)	0.003 (0.00409)	0.000 (0.00407)	0.003 (0.00409)	0.000 (0.00407)	0.003 (0.00409)	0.000 (0.00404)
F–statistic	638.49	146.37	638.36	146.45	638.37	146.45	638.37	146.55	637.65	145.43	638	147.85
2SLS
Owns washing machine	−0.068^** (0.027)	−0.136^** (0.069)	−0.002 (0.018)	−0.073 (0.051)	0.141^*** (0.015)	0.098^*** (0.022)	−0.016 (0.011)	−0.049^*** (0.018)	0.032^** (0.015)	0.017 (0.020)	−0.023^*** (0.008)	−0.016 (0.013)
Age	0.030^*** (0.001)	0.043^*** (0.002)	0.019^*** (0.001)	0.028^*** (0.002)	0.017^*** (0.001)	0.023^*** (0.002)	0.009^*** (0.001)	0.010^*** (0.001)	0.011^*** (0.001)	0.009^*** (0.001)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)
Age–squared	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)
Years of schooling	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.012^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.000)	−0.003^*** (0.000)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.007^*** (0.000)	0.000 (0.000)	0.001^* (0.000)
Rural	0.206^*** (0.013)	0.040^* (0.022)	0.211^*** (0.016)	0.045^** (0.021)	0.052^*** (0.010)	−0.009 (0.011)	−0.001 (0.006)	0.025^* (0.015)	−0.032^*** (0.004)	−0.025 (0.019)	−0.008^** (0.004)	0.015^* (0.008)
Hindu	0.026^*** (0.007)	0.046^*** (0.013)	0.074^*** (0.008)	0.111^*** (0.012)	0.031^*** (0.005)	0.029^*** (0.007)	−0.005 (0.004)	−0.014^** (0.006)	0.003 (0.003)	−0.002 (0.004)	−0.004 (0.003)	−0.005 (0.005)
SC or ST	−0.039^*** (0.007)	−0.050^*** (0.009)	−0.051^*** (0.008)	−0.069^*** (0.010)	0.077^*** (0.007)	0.103^*** (0.008)	0.022^*** (0.004)	0.029^*** (0.005)	0.024^*** (0.003)	0.017^*** (0.003)	−0.009^*** (0.003)	−0.007^** (0.003)
Wealth index	−0.053^*** (0.005)	−0.034^*** (0.008)	−0.050^*** (0.007)	−0.025^*** (0.009)	−0.106^*** (0.007)	−0.120^*** (0.008)	−0.027^*** (0.004)	−0.022^*** (0.004)	−0.015^*** (0.003)	−0.007^*** (0.002)	0.009^*** (0.002)	0.011^*** (0.002)
No. of children (household)	0.001 (0.001)	−0.003 (0.002)	0.003^** (0.001)	0.001 (0.002)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.002)	0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)	−0.001^** (0.001)	−0.001^* (0.001)	−0.001 (0.000)	−0.001^** (0.001)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		−0.001 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000^** (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to road access (km)		0.000 (0.002)		0.005^*** (0.002)		0.003^** (0.001)		0.000 (0.002)		0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)
Phone access		−0.025^* (0.013)		−0.062^*** (0.014)		0.007 (0.009)		0.013^* (0.007)		0.003 (0.003)		−0.002 (0.003)
Distance to railway station (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.003^*** (0.001)		0.003^*** (0.001)		−0.001^* (0.001)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000^** (0.000)		−0.001^** (0.000)
Distance to secondary school (km)		0.001 (0.001)		0.004^*** (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)		−0.000^* (0.000)		0.001 (0.000)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000^* (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
N	70,146	38,048	70,160	38,059	70,156	38,056	70,155	38,054	70,154	38,058	70,048	38,015
R²	0.256	0.193	0.276	0.223	0.277	0.279	0.101	0.119	0.061	0.050	0.024	0.031

Notes: All columns include district and year fixed effects. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.

* Denotes significance at 10%.

** Denotes significance at 5%.

*** Denotes significance at 1%. Standard errors are clustered at the district level.

2SLS, two–stage least squares; SC/ST, scheduled caste/scheduled tribe.

Table A5

2SLS: effect of living in a household that owns a refrigerator on married women's employment by job type

	Animal care		Farm work		Agricultural labor		Nonagricultural labor		Salaried post		Family business
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)	(11)	(12)
First stage
Owns refrigerator (single women)	0.376^*** (0.0132)	0.352^*** (0.0204)	0.376^*** (0.0132)	0.352^*** (0.0204)	0.376^*** (0.0132)	0.352^*** (0.0204)	0.376^*** (0.0132)	0.352^*** (0.0204)	0.376^*** (0.0132)	0.352^*** (0.0204)	0.376^*** (0.0132)	0.352^*** (0.0204)
Owns air conditioner	0.158^*** (0.0190)	0.223^*** (0.0313)	0.158^*** (0.0190)	0.223^*** (0.0313)	0.158^*** (0.0190)	0.223^*** (0.0313)	0.158^*** (0.0190)	0.223^*** (0.0313)	0.158^*** (0.0190)	0.223^*** (0.0313)	0.158^*** (0.0189)	0.224^*** (0.0314)
Owns color television	0.121^*** (0.00848)	0.0999^*** (0.0112)	0.121^*** (0.00848)	0.0999^*** (0.0112)	0.121^*** (0.00848)	0.0999^*** (0.0112)	0.121^*** (0.00848)	0.0999^*** (0.0112)	0.121^*** (0.00848)	0.0999^*** (0.0112)	0.121^*** (0.00848)	0.100^*** (0.0112)
F–statistic	497.52	193.73	495.87	193.8	495.88	193.82	495.68	193.6	495.54	193.74	495.69	193.82
2SLS
Owns refrigerator	−0.106^*** (0.028)	−0.076 (0.054)	−0.105^*** (0.029)	−0.139^** (0.057)	0.100^*** (0.019)	0.021 (0.035)	−0.008 (0.016)	−0.012 (0.030)	−0.008 (0.013)	−0.010 (0.014)	−0.021^** (0.009)	−0.007 (0.013)
Age	0.030^*** (0.001)	0.044^*** (0.002)	0.019^*** (0.001)	0.028^*** (0.002)	0.017^*** (0.001)	0.023^*** (0.002)	0.009^*** (0.001)	0.010^*** (0.001)	0.011^*** (0.001)	0.009^*** (0.001)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.006^*** (0.001)
Age–squared	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)	−0.000^*** (0.000)
Years of schooling	−0.006^*** (0.001)	−0.008^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.007^*** (0.001)	−0.011^*** (0.001)	−0.003^*** (0.000)	−0.004^*** (0.001)	0.008^*** (0.000)	0.007^*** (0.001)	0.000 (0.000)	0.001^* (0.000)
Rural	0.206^*** (0.013)	0.039^* (0.023)	0.209^*** (0.016)	0.036 (0.023)	0.050^*** (0.010)	−0.012 (0.012)	−0.001 (0.006)	0.026^* (0.015)	−0.034^*** (0.004)	−0.026 (0.019)	−0.008^** (0.004)	0.015^* (0.008)
Hindu	0.025^*** (0.007)	0.047^*** (0.013)	0.072^*** (0.008)	0.110^*** (0.013)	0.030^*** (0.005)	0.028^*** (0.007)	−0.005 (0.004)	−0.013^** (0.006)	0.003 (0.003)	−0.002 (0.004)	−0.004 (0.003)	−0.005 (0.006)
SC or ST	−0.040^*** (0.007)	−0.050^*** (0.009)	−0.053^*** (0.008)	−0.072^*** (0.010)	0.077^*** (0.007)	0.102^*** (0.008)	0.022^*** (0.004)	0.029^*** (0.005)	0.023^*** (0.003)	0.017^*** (0.003)	−0.009^*** (0.003)	−0.007^** (0.003)
Wealth index	−0.027^*** (0.009)	−0.023 (0.015)	−0.019^* (0.010)	0.006 (0.016)	−0.122^*** (0.009)	−0.118^*** (0.011)	−0.027^*** (0.006)	−0.023^** (0.009)	−0.009^** (0.004)	−0.003 (0.004)	0.013^*** (0.003)	0.012^*** (0.004)
No. of children (household)	0.002 (0.001)	−0.003 (0.002)	0.003^** (0.001)	0.001 (0.002)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	−0.005^*** (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)	0.001 (0.001)	−0.001^** (0.001)	−0.001^* (0.001)	−0.001 (0.000)	−0.001^** (0.001)
Village controls
Distance to nearest town (km)		−0.001 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000^** (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to road access (km)		0.000 (0.002)		0.005^*** (0.002)		0.003^** (0.001)		0.000 (0.002)		0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)
Phone access		−0.027^** (0.013)		−0.065^*** (0.014)		0.007 (0.009)		0.013^* (0.007)		0.003 (0.003)		−0.003 (0.003)
Distance to railway station (km)		−0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
Distance to market (km)		0.003^*** (0.001)		0.003^*** (0.001)		−0.001^** (0.001)		−0.000 (0.000)		−0.000^** (0.000)		−0.001^** (0.000)
Distance to secondary school (km)		0.001 (0.001)		0.004^*** (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.001)		−0.000^* (0.000)		0.001 (0.000)
Distance to higher secondary school (km)		0.000 (0.001)		0.000 (0.000)		−0.000^* (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)		0.000^* (0.000)		0.000 (0.000)
N	70,207	38,060	70,221	38,071	70,217	38,068	70,216	38,066	70,215	38,070	70,109	38,027
R²	0.249	0.193	0.269	0.217	0.275	0.279	0.101	0.120	0.059	0.049	0.022	0.030