Figure 1
Labor market indicators for Latin American youth.
Source: Authors’ calculations on data from (SEDLAC, 2018).
Notes: Youth are defined as people aged between 15 and 24. The dashed lines represent the regional average. ARG=Argentina, BOL=Bolivia, BRA=Brazil, CHL=Chile, COL=Colombia, CRI=Costa Rica, DOM=Dominican Republic, ECU=Ecuador, SLV=El Salvador, GTM=Guatemala, HND=Honduras, MEX=Mexico, NIC=Nicaragua, PAN=Panama, PRY=Paraguay, URY=Uruguay.
Figure 2
Gender gaps in labor market indicators for Latin American youth.
Source: Authors’ calculations on data from (SEDLAC, 2018).
Notes: Youth are defined as people aged between 15 and 24. ARG=Argentina, BOL=Bolivia, BRA=Brazil, CHL=Chile, COL=Colombia, CRI=Costa Rica, DOM=Dominican Republic, ECU=Ecuador, SLV=El Salvador, GTM=Guatemala, HND=Honduras, MEX=Mexico, NIC=Nicaragua, PAN=Panama, PRY=Paraguay, URY=Uruguay.
Figure 3
Time use trends for youth and adults.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Figure 4
Trends in labor market indicators for youth and adults.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Figure 5
Trends in type of occupation and informality for youth and adults.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Figure 6
Trends in real monthly earnings for youth and adults.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Notes: Earning values were deflated to December 2008 prices using the consumer price index published by the Colombian Central Bank.
Figure 7
Ratios in labor market indicators between youth and adults.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1.
Figure 8
Ratios in youth labor market indicators by gender.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A4 in Appendix.
Figure 9
Ratios in youth labor market indicators by area of residence.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A5 in Appendix.
Figure 10
Ratios in youth labor market indicators by education level.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A7 in Appendix.
Figure 11
Ratios in youth labor market indicators by SES.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A8 in Appendix.
Figure 12
Ratios in youth labor market indicators by migration status.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A9 in Appendix.
Figure 13
Ratios in youth labor market indicators by level of experience.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Notes: The graph shows the average ratio (circle) and its 95% confidence interval. When in range, we also show a dashed line for equality at value 1. The statistics used to calculate these ratios are shown in Table A10 in Appendix. Given that the GEIH only asks employed and unemployed individuals if they have previous labor market experience, it is impossible to calculate labor force participation by level of experience. In order to obtain that estimate, we require that inactive individuals be asked about their level of experience in the labor market, which is not currently asked.
Table 1
Differences in youth labor market indicators by characteristics, 2017
| Labor force participation (share) | Employment rate (share) | Unemployment rate | Salaried occupation (share) | Informality (share) | Monthly earnings (Colombian pesos or COP) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Gender | ||||||
| Male | 0.658 | 0.578 | 0.122 | 0.582 | 0.643 | 554,214 |
| Female | 0.505 | 0.398 | 0.212 | 0.616 | 0.604 | 528,264 |
| Pr (Male=Female) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.468 | 0.411 | 0.000 |
| Observations | 199,389 | 199,389 | 108,551 | 88,787 | 87,874 | 75,708 |
| B. Region | ||||||
| Urban | 0.589 | 0.484 | 0.178 | 0.649 | 0.562 | 588,332 |
| Rural | 0.558 | 0.505 | 0.093 | 0.413 | 0.860 | 375,005 |
| Pr (Urban=Rural) | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Observations | 199,389 | 199,389 | 108,551 | 88,787 | 87,874 | 75,708 |
| C. Education level | ||||||
| Unskilled | 0.901 | 0.754 | 0.163 | 0.737 | 0.285 | 832,519 |
| Skilled | 0.619 | 0.508 | 0.180 | 0.630 | 0.628 | 504,991 |
| Pr (Unskilled=Skilled) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.028 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Observations | 133,827 | 133,827 | 84,562 | 68,232 | 68,135 | 59,081 |
| D. Socioeconomic status | ||||||
| Medium/High | 0.582 | 0.488 | 0.161 | 0.726 | 0.426 | 759,876 |
| Low | 0.582 | 0.486 | 0.164 | 0.573 | 0.673 | 487,573 |
| Pr (Medium/High=Low) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.246 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Observations | 194,668 | 194,668 | 105,780 | 86,311 | 85,491 | 73,744 |
| E. Migration status | ||||||
| Non-migrants | 0.569 | 0.478 | 0.160 | 0.580 | 0.632 | 529,685 |
| Migrants | 0.641 | 0.539 | 0.160 | 0.665 | 0.610 | 600,796 |
| Pr (Migrant/Native) | 0.079 | 0.069 | 0.905 | 0.000 | 0.939 | 0.000 |
| Observations | 199,252 | 199,252 | 108,480 | 88,735 | 87,822 | 75,669 |
| F. Experience | ||||||
| With experience | - | 0.819 | 0.181 | 0.663 | 0.567 | 582,553 |
| Without experience | - | 0.891 | 0.109 | 0.440 | 0.772 | 437,439 |
| Pr (With=Without) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |
| Observations | 108,551 | 108,551 | 88,787 | 87,874 | 75,708 | |
| G. Age groups | ||||||
| 14–17 | 0.172 | 0.150 | 0.127 | 0.332 | 0.997 | 229,524 |
| 18–-21 | 0.607 | 0.471 | 0.224 | 0.594 | 0.749 | 430,128 |
| 22–25 | 0.786 | 0.664 | 0.154 | 0.637 | 0.567 | 572,049 |
| 26–28 | 0.848 | 0.749 | 0.116 | 0.622 | 0.508 | 664,308 |
| Pr (All equal) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Observations | 199,389 | 199,389 | 108,551 | 88,787 | 87,874 | 75,708 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH microdata for all months from 2017.
[ii] Notes: This table presents averages by youth characteristics. In the third row of each panel, we present the probability that the averages between groups are equal. This value is obtained by means of a regression of the indicator on a dummy variable for each vulnerable group, age fixed effects, department fixed effects (the administrative unit) and month fixed effects, with robust standard errors that are clustered by the month for which the person was surveyed. The null hypothesis is that there are no differences between the groups. Pr=Probability.
Table 2
Recent youth labor policies in Colombia
| Name | Year | Measures | Ages |
|---|---|---|---|
| Youth in Action (Jóvenes en Acción) —First stage | 2005 | Cash transfers conditional on program participation. Three months of theoretical training and a three month internship | 18–25 |
| First job act (Ley del Primer Empleo) —Law 1429 | 2010 | Exemption from payroll taxes for employers who hire young workers. Tax benefits and simplification of procedures for enterprises. | 18–28 |
| 10,000 First Jobs (40,000 Primeros Empleos) | 2015 | Offers a grant to companies that hire young people. The grant covers wages, compulsory social contributions, and a travel allowance for six months. Participating firms must guarantee six additional months to 60% of the beneficiaries they hire. | 18–28 |
| Pro-Youth Act (Ley Projoven) — Law 2780 of 2016 | 2016 | Promotes entrepreneurship among young people by providing seed money and tax benefits. Attracts talented young people to work in the public sector through paid internships. Exemption from payroll taxes for companies that hire inexperienced young individuals. Removes the requirement of military service for young males to obtain a formal job. | 18–28 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from program documents.
[ii] Notes: This table contains labor policies specifically aimed at youth and omits those that affect them indirectly.
Table A1
Trends in labor market indicators for youth and adults
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Youth | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.363 | 0.371 | 0.373 | 0.382 | 0.382 | 0.381 | 0.384 | 0.393 | 0.389 | 0.384 |
| Seeking work | 0.057 | 0.057 | 0.047 | 0.045 | 0.037 | 0.035 | 0.038 | 0.041 | 0.039 | 0.038 |
| Studying | 0.355 | 0.358 | 0.357 | 0.353 | 0.342 | 0.356 | 0.357 | 0.356 | 0.353 | 0.352 |
| Other | 0.225 | 0.214 | 0.223 | 0.219 | 0.239 | 0.228 | 0.221 | 0.209 | 0.218 | 0.226 |
| Adults | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.621 | 0.626 | 0.631 | 0.644 | 0.634 | 0.637 | 0.647 | 0.659 | 0.650 | 0.649 |
| Seeking work | 0.034 | 0.038 | 0.033 | 0.028 | 0.027 | 0.025 | 0.024 | 0.027 | 0.026 | 0.024 |
| Studying | 0.004 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.004 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.006 |
| Other | 0.340 | 0.331 | 0.331 | 0.323 | 0.334 | 0.333 | 0.324 | 0.308 | 0.319 | 0.321 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Youth | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.530 | 0.552 | 0.573 | 0.574 | 0.587 | 0.582 | 0.582 | 0.581 | 0.573 | 0.576 |
| Employment rate | 0.426 | 0.442 | 0.463 | 0.472 | 0.485 | 0.489 | 0.491 | 0.490 | 0.484 | 0.483 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.196 | 0.200 | 0.191 | 0.178 | 0.174 | 0.160 | 0.156 | 0.157 | 0.155 | 0.161 |
| Adults | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.753 | 0.777 | 0.792 | 0.795 | 0.803 | 0.808 | 0.805 | 0.810 | 0.809 | 0.809 |
| Employment rate | 0.693 | 0.708 | 0.727 | 0.737 | 0.745 | 0.753 | 0.755 | 0.758 | 0.755 | 0.754 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.079 | 0.089 | 0.082 | 0.073 | 0.072 | 0.068 | 0.062 | 0.064 | 0.067 | 0.068 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Youth | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.596 | 0.590 | 0.571 | 0.576 | 0.579 | 0.580 | 0.593 | 0.600 | 0.599 | 0.593 |
| Informality | 0.691 | 0.705 | 0.720 | 0.712 | 0.703 | 0.677 | 0.663 | 0.640 | 0.633 | 0.631 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.181 | 0.204 | 0.193 | 0.181 | 0.170 | 0.162 | 0.163 | 0.151 | 0.164 | 0.168 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.219 | 0.205 | 0.211 | 0.227 | 0.215 | 0.210 | 0.204 | 0.206 | 0.202 | 0.197 |
| Sector: Services | 0.600 | 0.590 | 0.596 | 0.592 | 0.615 | 0.629 | 0.633 | 0.643 | 0.634 | 0.635 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.037 | 0.029 | 0.041 | 0.040 | 0.046 | 0.050 | 0.054 | 0.061 | 0.062 | 0.057 |
| Adults | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.465 | 0.456 | 0.449 | 0.444 | 0.446 | 0.461 | 0.467 | 0.474 | 0.472 | 0.470 |
| Informality | 0.654 | 0.666 | 0.671 | 0.658 | 0.654 | 0.631 | 0.618 | 0.614 | 0.603 | 0.596 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.173 | 0.176 | 0.178 | 0.170 | 0.168 | 0.163 | 0.161 | 0.158 | 0.159 | 0.165 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.202 | 0.208 | 0.213 | 0.214 | 0.208 | 0.201 | 0.201 | 0.197 | 0.197 | 0.195 |
| Sector: Services | 0.625 | 0.616 | 0.609 | 0.616 | 0.624 | 0.636 | 0.639 | 0.644 | 0.644 | 0.641 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.039 | 0.037 | 0.042 | 0.047 | 0.048 | 0.055 | 0.054 | 0.057 | 0.054 | 0.057 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Youth | 495,919 | 493,676 | 499,359 | 519,657 | 521,473 | 549,504 | 557,946 | 556,813 | 544,201 | 553,089 |
| Adults | 648,638 | 633,078 | 653,693 | 671,388 | 667,310 | 690,540 | 698,319 | 676,237 | 681,665 | 681,402 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Table A2
Classification of economic sectors
| Section | Description | CIIU Code | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary sector | A | Agriculture, livestock, forestry | 01, 02 |
| B | Fishery | 5 | |
| Secondary sector (Industry and manufacturing) | C | Mining and quarrying | 10 a 14 |
| D | Manufacturing industries | 15 a 37 | |
| E | Electricity, gas, and water supply | 40 y 41 | |
| F | Construction | 45 | |
| Tertiary sector (Services) | G | Wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles, personal belongings, and household goods | 50 a 52 |
| H | Hotels and restaurants | 55 | |
| I | Transport, storage, and communications | 60 a 64 | |
| J | Financial intermediation | 65 a 67 | |
| K | Real estate, business, and rental activities | 70 a 74 | |
| L | Public administration and defense, compulsory social security | 75 | |
| M | Education | 80 | |
| N | Social services and health | 85 | |
| O | Other activities related to community, social, and personal services | 90 a 93 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from CIIU industry codes.
Table A3
STEM occupations
| Code | Occupation (CIUO-68) |
|---|---|
| 1 | Specialists in physical and chemical sciences and related technicians |
| and 3 | Architects, engineers, and related technicians |
| Pilots, deck officers, machinists’ mates (aviation and navy) | |
| Biologists, agronomists, and related technicians | |
| and 7 | Physicians, odontologists, veterinarians, and related workers |
| Statisticians, mathematicians, system analysts, and related technicians | |
| Economists | |
| Accountants | |
| Jurists |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from CIUO-68 industry codes.
Table A4
Trends in youth labor market indicators by gender
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Male | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.472 | 0.484 | 0.488 | 0.500 | 0.495 | 0.495 | 0.492 | 0.497 | 0.497 | 0.493 |
| Seeking work | 0.068 | 0.070 | 0.061 | 0.059 | 0.052 | 0.045 | 0.049 | 0.049 | 0.049 | 0.049 |
| Studying | 0.367 | 0.368 | 0.363 | 0.358 | 0.350 | 0.359 | 0.364 | 0.363 | 0.361 | 0.356 |
| Other | 0.092 | 0.078 | 0.088 | 0.084 | 0.103 | 0.101 | 0.095 | 0.091 | 0.093 | 0.102 |
| Female | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.254 | 0.256 | 0.258 | 0.261 | 0.268 | 0.267 | 0.276 | 0.288 | 0.280 | 0.272 |
| Seeking work | 0.045 | 0.044 | 0.034 | 0.032 | 0.023 | 0.024 | 0.026 | 0.034 | 0.029 | 0.028 |
| Studying | 0.342 | 0.347 | 0.350 | 0.349 | 0.335 | 0.352 | 0.351 | 0.349 | 0.346 | 0.348 |
| Other | 0.359 | 0.352 | 0.358 | 0.358 | 0.375 | 0.357 | 0.347 | 0.329 | 0.344 | 0.352 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Male | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.621 | 0.642 | 0.666 | 0.665 | 0.679 | 0.667 | 0.664 | 0.658 | 0.656 | 0.654 |
| Employment rate | 0.524 | 0.544 | 0.569 | 0.577 | 0.588 | 0.586 | 0.582 | 0.580 | 0.578 | 0.575 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.155 | 0.153 | 0.145 | 0.132 | 0.135 | 0.122 | 0.123 | 0.118 | 0.119 | 0.121 |
| Female | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.438 | 0.461 | 0.479 | 0.481 | 0.494 | 0.495 | 0.498 | 0.503 | 0.489 | 0.496 |
| Employment rate | 0.326 | 0.338 | 0.357 | 0.364 | 0.382 | 0.390 | 0.398 | 0.398 | 0.389 | 0.389 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.255 | 0.267 | 0.255 | 0.243 | 0.228 | 0.213 | 0.201 | 0.209 | 0.205 | 0.216 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Male | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.578 | 0.575 | 0.566 | 0.574 | 0.578 | 0.582 | 0.591 | 0.588 | 0.587 | 0.589 |
| Informality | 0.711 | 0.732 | 0.732 | 0.727 | 0.723 | 0.688 | 0.678 | 0.657 | 0.651 | 0.642 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.249 | 0.283 | 0.262 | 0.245 | 0.229 | 0.220 | 0.218 | 0.202 | 0.223 | 0.222 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.245 | 0.225 | 0.242 | 0.260 | 0.251 | 0.248 | 0.239 | 0.254 | 0.245 | 0.239 |
| Sector: Services | 0.506 | 0.492 | 0.496 | 0.495 | 0.520 | 0.533 | 0.543 | 0.544 | 0.532 | 0.539 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.035 | 0.028 | 0.044 | 0.043 | 0.051 | 0.052 | 0.054 | 0.066 | 0.069 | 0.062 |
| Female | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.625 | 0.615 | 0.580 | 0.580 | 0.580 | 0.577 | 0.595 | 0.619 | 0.618 | 0.598 |
| Informality | 0.658 | 0.661 | 0.702 | 0.687 | 0.673 | 0.660 | 0.640 | 0.616 | 0.606 | 0.615 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.060 | 0.063 | 0.071 | 0.068 | 0.071 | 0.067 | 0.075 | 0.069 | 0.071 | 0.081 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.173 | 0.170 | 0.158 | 0.170 | 0.156 | 0.148 | 0.150 | 0.131 | 0.133 | 0.131 |
| Sector: Services | 0.767 | 0.768 | 0.771 | 0.762 | 0.774 | 0.785 | 0.775 | 0.799 | 0.795 | 0.788 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.040 | 0.030 | 0.035 | 0.036 | 0.040 | 0.047 | 0.055 | 0.053 | 0.053 | 0.050 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Male | 500,932 | 501,119 | 510,920 | 535,673 | 532,080 | 564,317 | 562,065 | 569,403 | 555,072 | 568,149 |
| Female | 487,625 | 481,327 | 480,364 | 493,004 | 504,352 | 526,027 | 551,717 | 537,741 | 527,592 | 529,785 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Table A5
Trends in youth labor market indicators by area of residence
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Urban | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.367 | 0.369 | 0.370 | 0.382 | 0.388 | 0.389 | 0.396 | 0.402 | 0.394 | 0.390 |
| Seeking work | 0.060 | 0.061 | 0.052 | 0.050 | 0.040 | 0.038 | 0.040 | 0.044 | 0.042 | 0.044 |
| Studying | 0.374 | 0.378 | 0.381 | 0.377 | 0.361 | 0.372 | 0.372 | 0.372 | 0.367 | 0.365 |
| Other | 0.199 | 0.191 | 0.198 | 0.191 | 0.211 | 0.201 | 0.192 | 0.182 | 0.197 | 0.201 |
| Rural | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.351 | 0.376 | 0.386 | 0.382 | 0.361 | 0.356 | 0.343 | 0.361 | 0.371 | 0.358 |
| Seeking work | 0.045 | 0.045 | 0.033 | 0.029 | 0.028 | 0.024 | 0.028 | 0.033 | 0.029 | 0.020 |
| Studying | 0.292 | 0.289 | 0.275 | 0.277 | 0.277 | 0.298 | 0.305 | 0.299 | 0.304 | 0.304 |
| Other | 0.313 | 0.290 | 0.306 | 0.313 | 0.334 | 0.322 | 0.323 | 0.307 | 0.296 | 0.317 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Urban | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.541 | 0.559 | 0.577 | 0.578 | 0.596 | 0.590 | 0.593 | 0.589 | 0.581 | 0.584 |
| Employment rate | 0.431 | 0.438 | 0.457 | 0.468 | 0.485 | 0.489 | 0.493 | 0.494 | 0.484 | 0.479 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.204 | 0.216 | 0.208 | 0.191 | 0.187 | 0.171 | 0.168 | 0.162 | 0.166 | 0.179 |
| Rural | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.492 | 0.531 | 0.559 | 0.563 | 0.556 | 0.553 | 0.541 | 0.550 | 0.544 | 0.547 |
| Employment rate | 0.408 | 0.455 | 0.485 | 0.487 | 0.486 | 0.487 | 0.482 | 0.475 | 0.483 | 0.497 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.170 | 0.144 | 0.132 | 0.135 | 0.125 | 0.120 | 0.109 | 0.136 | 0.112 | 0.092 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Urban | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.625 | 0.633 | 0.618 | 0.621 | 0.627 | 0.621 | 0.638 | 0.650 | 0.654 | 0.643 |
| Informality | 0.633 | 0.636 | 0.660 | 0.648 | 0.636 | 0.618 | 0.599 | 0.574 | 0.570 | 0.568 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.044 | 0.050 | 0.043 | 0.034 | 0.035 | 0.029 | 0.030 | 0.032 | 0.037 | 0.039 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.248 | 0.229 | 0.236 | 0.248 | 0.237 | 0.230 | 0.223 | 0.226 | 0.220 | 0.217 |
| Sector: Services | 0.708 | 0.721 | 0.721 | 0.717 | 0.728 | 0.741 | 0.747 | 0.742 | 0.743 | 0.743 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.047 | 0.038 | 0.052 | 0.051 | 0.058 | 0.063 | 0.067 | 0.074 | 0.077 | 0.071 |
| Rural | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.495 | 0.454 | 0.427 | 0.434 | 0.415 | 0.438 | 0.431 | 0.414 | 0.401 | 0.419 |
| Informality | 0.889 | 0.924 | 0.909 | 0.915 | 0.933 | 0.885 | 0.899 | 0.890 | 0.867 | 0.854 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.647 | 0.682 | 0.651 | 0.639 | 0.624 | 0.617 | 0.636 | 0.589 | 0.624 | 0.610 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.122 | 0.131 | 0.134 | 0.161 | 0.142 | 0.140 | 0.138 | 0.135 | 0.134 | 0.128 |
| Sector: Services | 0.231 | 0.186 | 0.215 | 0.200 | 0.234 | 0.243 | 0.226 | 0.276 | 0.242 | 0.262 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.007 | 0.007 | 0.007 | 0.009 | 0.008 | 0.009 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Urban | 539,281 | 538,921 | 546,006 | 564,167 | 569,131 | 597,107 | 607,002 | 602,954 | 585,825 | 594,071 |
| Rural | 333,284 | 331,863 | 335,225 | 362,220 | 339,247 | 367,432 | 357,491 | 365,652 | 375,807 | 394,925 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Table A6
Youth labor market indicators by geographic regions, 2017
| Bogotá | Eastern | Central | Pacific | Caribbean | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | |||||
| Youth | |||||
| Working | 0.456 | 0.371 | 0.390 | 0.374 | 0.338 |
| Seeking work | 0.062 | 0.039 | 0.033 | 0.029 | 0.034 |
| Studying | 0.332 | 0.373 | 0.332 | 0.359 | 0.368 |
| Other | 0.151 | 0.217 | 0.245 | 0.238 | 0.260 |
| Adults | |||||
| Working | 0.711 | 0.633 | 0.624 | 0.645 | 0.645 |
| Seeking work | 0.037 | 0.027 | 0.024 | 0.016 | 0.019 |
| Studying | 0.006 | 0.007 | 0.006 | 0.006 | 0.003 |
| Other | 0.246 | 0.333 | 0.347 | 0.333 | 0.333 |
| B. Labor market indicators | |||||
| Youth | |||||
| Labor force | 0.648 | 0.569 | 0.581 | 0.579 | 0.517 |
| participation | |||||
| Employment rate | 0.533 | 0.489 | 0.483 | 0.479 | 0.443 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.178 | 0.141 | 0.168 | 0.172 | 0.144 |
| Adults | |||||
| Labor force participation | 0.852 | 0.819 | 0.775 | 0.819 | 0.797 |
| Employment rate | 0.793 | 0.762 | 0.717 | 0.763 | 0.752 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.070 | 0.070 | 0.075 | 0.068 | 0.056 |
| C. Employment quality | |||||
| Youth | |||||
| Wage earners | 0.783 | 0.573 | 0.660 | 0.509 | 0.425 |
| Informality | 0.411 | 0.669 | 0.599 | 0.706 | 0.778 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.006 | 0.226 | 0.190 | 0.230 | 0.187 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.212 | 0.209 | 0.195 | 0.197 | 0.176 |
| Sector: Services | 0.783 | 0.565 | 0.615 | 0.573 | 0.638 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.102 | 0.044 | 0.056 | 0.048 | 0.037 |
| Adults | |||||
| Wage earners | 0.602 | 0.428 | 0.533 | 0.407 | 0.364 |
| Informality | 0.419 | 0.644 | 0.552 | 0.661 | 0.715 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.006 | 0.214 | 0.197 | 0.229 | 0.172 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.217 | 0.187 | 0.194 | 0.194 | 0.182 |
| Sector: Services | 0.777 | 0.599 | 0.609 | 0.577 | 0.646 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.092 | 0.047 | 0.054 | 0.048 | 0.044 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | |||||
| Youth | 677,945 | 542,382 | 576,063 | 494,380 | 451,173 |
| Adults | 843,413 | 666,472 | 697,949 | 615,475 | 579,759 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2017.
[ii] Notes: Bogotá includes the capital district; Eastern includes the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca, Meta, Norte de Santander, and Santander; Central includes Antioquia, Caldas, Caquetá, Huila, Quindí, Risaralda, and Tolima; Pacific includes Cauca, Chocó, and Nariño, Caribbean includes Atlántico, Bolívar, César, Córdova, La Guajira, Magdalena, and Sucre.
Table A7
Trends in youth labor market indicators by educational level
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Skilled | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.663 | 0.685 | 0.655 | 0.681 | 0.661 | 0.665 | 0.669 | 0.690 | 0.669 | 0.675 |
| Seeking work | 0.126 | 0.109 | 0.097 | 0.090 | 0.064 | 0.066 | 0.068 | 0.076 | 0.077 | 0.071 |
| Studying | 0.061 | 0.068 | 0.077 | 0.080 | 0.089 | 0.091 | 0.090 | 0.082 | 0.074 | 0.066 |
| Other | 0.150 | 0.138 | 0.171 | 0.150 | 0.186 | 0.178 | 0.173 | 0.152 | 0.180 | 0.187 |
| Unskilled | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.372 | 0.385 | 0.385 | 0.402 | 0.401 | 0.395 | 0.399 | 0.414 | 0.407 | 0.404 |
| Seeking work | 0.069 | 0.073 | 0.057 | 0.055 | 0.045 | 0.038 | 0.041 | 0.047 | 0.043 | 0.044 |
| Studying | 0.351 | 0.344 | 0.350 | 0.337 | 0.321 | 0.345 | 0.344 | 0.331 | 0.327 | 0.326 |
| Other | 0.207 | 0.198 | 0.208 | 0.206 | 0.233 | 0.222 | 0.216 | 0.207 | 0.223 | 0.226 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Skilled | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.903 | 0.907 | 0.901 | 0.912 | 0.894 | 0.901 | 0.893 | 0.902 | 0.901 | 0.911 |
| Employment rate | 0.723 | 0.747 | 0.733 | 0.754 | 0.747 | 0.758 | 0.757 | 0.765 | 0.756 | 0.769 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.200 | 0.177 | 0.186 | 0.173 | 0.164 | 0.159 | 0.152 | 0.152 | 0.160 | 0.155 |
| Unskilled | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.578 | 0.604 | 0.624 | 0.627 | 0.644 | 0.625 | 0.624 | 0.631 | 0.614 | 0.624 |
| Employment rate | 0.446 | 0.460 | 0.485 | 0.500 | 0.514 | 0.512 | 0.512 | 0.522 | 0.509 | 0.510 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.230 | 0.238 | 0.223 | 0.204 | 0.201 | 0.181 | 0.180 | 0.172 | 0.170 | 0.183 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Skilled | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.748 | 0.729 | 0.718 | 0.714 | 0.710 | 0.723 | 0.752 | 0.752 | 0.743 | 0.730 |
| Informality | 0.280 | 0.288 | 0.334 | 0.326 | 0.333 | 0.320 | 0.297 | 0.281 | 0.282 | 0.291 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.017 | 0.026 | 0.016 | 0.022 | 0.020 | 0.014 | 0.009 | 0.017 | 0.026 | 0.031 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.174 | 0.152 | 0.166 | 0.180 | 0.160 | 0.175 | 0.175 | 0.175 | 0.167 | 0.170 |
| Sector: Services | 0.809 | 0.823 | 0.818 | 0.798 | 0.821 | 0.811 | 0.816 | 0.808 | 0.808 | 0.800 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.207 | 0.160 | 0.183 | 0.180 | 0.187 | 0.174 | 0.195 | 0.199 | 0.234 | 0.208 |
| Unskilled | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.638 | 0.665 | 0.628 | 0.621 | 0.626 | 0.606 | 0.629 | 0.637 | 0.633 | 0.621 |
| Informality | 0.635 | 0.627 | 0.662 | 0.667 | 0.663 | 0.673 | 0.665 | 0.637 | 0.631 | 0.641 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.073 | 0.080 | 0.079 | 0.086 | 0.078 | 0.080 | 0.090 | 0.092 | 0.101 | 0.108 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.234 | 0.219 | 0.220 | 0.229 | 0.236 | 0.219 | 0.221 | 0.211 | 0.213 | 0.205 |
| Sector: Services | 0.694 | 0.701 | 0.701 | 0.685 | 0.686 | 0.701 | 0.690 | 0.696 | 0.686 | 0.687 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.016 | 0.017 | 0.032 | 0.026 | 0.029 | 0.031 | 0.028 | 0.035 | 0.029 | 0.025 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Skilled | 901,194 | 900,018 | 892,860 | 888,346 | 866,497 | 884,256 | 890,851 | 857,286 | 861,026 | 821,858 |
| Unskilled | 485,135 | 488,930 | 495,174 | 499,146 | 499,384 | 511,002 | 509,471 | 515,089 | 501,342 | 512,423 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
[ii] Notes: We define skilled individuals as those who report at least some post-secondary education. Unskilled individuals are those who have complete high school or less.
Table A8
Trends in youth labor market indicators by SES
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Medium/High | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.387 | 0.383 | 0.392 | 0.401 | 0.402 | 0.404 | 0.412 | 0.411 | 0.389 | 0.408 |
| Seeking work | 0.050 | 0.048 | 0.037 | 0.040 | 0.035 | 0.031 | 0.030 | 0.036 | 0.035 | 0.042 |
| Studying | 0.419 | 0.441 | 0.437 | 0.437 | 0.423 | 0.434 | 0.434 | 0.434 | 0.445 | 0.430 |
| Other | 0.144 | 0.127 | 0.134 | 0.123 | 0.141 | 0.132 | 0.124 | 0.119 | 0.131 | 0.120 |
| Low | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.355 | 0.368 | 0.366 | 0.375 | 0.376 | 0.374 | 0.375 | 0.389 | 0.390 | 0.377 |
| Seeking work | 0.059 | 0.061 | 0.050 | 0.048 | 0.039 | 0.036 | 0.042 | 0.044 | 0.042 | 0.038 |
| Studying | 0.330 | 0.337 | 0.338 | 0.333 | 0.326 | 0.338 | 0.340 | 0.339 | 0.332 | 0.333 |
| Other | 0.256 | 0.234 | 0.246 | 0.244 | 0.259 | 0.252 | 0.243 | 0.228 | 0.236 | 0.252 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Medium/High | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.546 | 0.550 | 0.582 | 0.584 | 0.599 | 0.593 | 0.597 | 0.575 | 0.565 | 0.577 |
| Employment rate | 0.445 | 0.447 | 0.472 | 0.487 | 0.496 | 0.498 | 0.508 | 0.494 | 0.481 | 0.486 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.185 | 0.187 | 0.189 | 0.166 | 0.173 | 0.160 | 0.150 | 0.140 | 0.150 | 0.159 |
| Low | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.527 | 0.557 | 0.575 | 0.572 | 0.585 | 0.577 | 0.576 | 0.582 | 0.573 | 0.574 |
| Employment rate | 0.423 | 0.442 | 0.462 | 0.465 | 0.480 | 0.482 | 0.482 | 0.487 | 0.482 | 0.478 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.199 | 0.206 | 0.196 | 0.187 | 0.179 | 0.165 | 0.163 | 0.164 | 0.159 | 0.168 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Medium/High | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.686 | 0.704 | 0.684 | 0.665 | 0.696 | 0.683 | 0.703 | 0.702 | 0.716 | 0.719 |
| Informality | 0.509 | 0.496 | 0.521 | 0.541 | 0.520 | 0.489 | 0.472 | 0.443 | 0.449 | 0.426 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.038 | 0.039 | 0.027 | 0.022 | 0.027 | 0.019 | 0.038 | 0.018 | 0.021 | 0.010 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.214 | 0.188 | 0.202 | 0.194 | 0.195 | 0.183 | 0.171 | 0.178 | 0.175 | 0.171 |
| Sector: Services | 0.748 | 0.773 | 0.770 | 0.785 | 0.777 | 0.798 | 0.792 | 0.804 | 0.804 | 0.819 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.079 | 0.081 | 0.094 | 0.105 | 0.103 | 0.121 | 0.112 | 0.130 | 0.132 | 0.130 |
| Low | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.565 | 0.571 | 0.555 | 0.571 | 0.558 | 0.567 | 0.571 | 0.587 | 0.584 | 0.574 |
| Informality | 0.756 | 0.748 | 0.764 | 0.743 | 0.742 | 0.721 | 0.709 | 0.682 | 0.665 | 0.679 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.213 | 0.219 | 0.205 | 0.194 | 0.181 | 0.177 | 0.174 | 0.166 | 0.177 | 0.185 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.230 | 0.212 | 0.217 | 0.238 | 0.223 | 0.219 | 0.216 | 0.219 | 0.211 | 0.210 |
| Sector: Services | 0.557 | 0.569 | 0.578 | 0.567 | 0.595 | 0.605 | 0.610 | 0.614 | 0.612 | 0.605 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.019 | 0.016 | 0.026 | 0.022 | 0.032 | 0.031 | 0.039 | 0.043 | 0.046 | 0.038 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Medium/High | 675,895 | 736,662 | 754,662 | 731,048 | 730,208 | 793,309 | 785,198 | 783,915 | 752,541 | 760,710 |
| Low | 423,830 | 433,017 | 431,666 | 467,717 | 467,387 | 479,347 | 493,527 | 498,883 | 497,061 | 495,066 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
[ii] Notes: We define individuals as Medium/High SES as those who report their strata as 3, 4, 5, or 6. Individuals with low SES are those who report their strata as 1 and 2.
Table A9
Trends in youth labor market indicators by migration status
| 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | |||||
| Non-migrants | |||||
| Working | 0.370 | 0.373 | 0.383 | 0.378 | 0.372 |
| Seeking work | 0.036 | 0.039 | 0.042 | 0.039 | 0.038 |
| Studying | 0.375 | 0.377 | 0.374 | 0.373 | 0.373 |
| Other | 0.219 | 0.212 | 0.201 | 0.210 | 0.217 |
| Migrants | |||||
| Working | 0.440 | 0.442 | 0.445 | 0.441 | 0.436 |
| Seeking work | 0.029 | 0.031 | 0.037 | 0.041 | 0.042 |
| Studying | 0.256 | 0.260 | 0.266 | 0.262 | 0.255 |
| Other | 0.275 | 0.266 | 0.252 | 0.256 | 0.268 |
| B. Labor market indicators | |||||
| Non-migrants | |||||
| Labor force participation | 0.572 | 0.570 | 0.571 | 0.563 | 0.563 |
| Employment rate | 0.480 | 0.481 | 0.480 | 0.473 | 0.471 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.162 | 0.157 | 0.160 | 0.159 | 0.164 |
| Migrants | |||||
| Labor force participation | 0.631 | 0.637 | 0.630 | 0.620 | 0.632 |
| Employment rate | 0.535 | 0.539 | 0.540 | 0.533 | 0.537 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.153 | 0.154 | 0.143 | 0.141 | 0.151 |
| C. Employment quality | |||||
| Non-migrants | |||||
| Wage earners | 0.559 | 0.577 | 0.588 | 0.581 | 0.582 |
| Informality | 0.684 | 0.674 | 0.648 | 0.639 | 0.634 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.163 | 0.167 | 0.149 | 0.164 | 0.171 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.209 | 0.209 | 0.206 | 0.204 | 0.193 |
| Sector: Services | 0.629 | 0.624 | 0.645 | 0.632 | 0.635 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.049 | 0.053 | 0.062 | 0.064 | 0.058 |
| Migrants | |||||
| Wage earners | 0.675 | 0.663 | 0.656 | 0.674 | 0.640 |
| Informality | 0.642 | 0.615 | 0.604 | 0.606 | 0.618 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.157 | 0.140 | 0.160 | 0.165 | 0.152 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.214 | 0.184 | 0.208 | 0.192 | 0.211 |
| Sector: Services | 0.629 | 0.676 | 0.632 | 0.644 | 0.637 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.058 | 0.059 | 0.052 | 0.057 | 0.055 |
| D. Real monthly labor income | |||||
| Non-migrants | 537,304 | 538,153 | 541,503 | 531,831 | 542,004 |
| Migrants | 603,000 | 641,155 | 625,752 | 595,243 | 598,913 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
[ii] Notes: We define individuals as migrants if they report living in a different municipality 5 years before the survey and non-migrants otherwise.
Table A10
Trends in youth labor market indicators by level of experience
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| With experience | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.695 | 0.675 | 0.668 | 0.689 | 0.673 | 0.684 | 0.685 | 0.701 | 0.696 | 0.689 |
| Seeking work | 0.112 | 0.122 | 0.096 | 0.088 | 0.072 | 0.067 | 0.076 | 0.080 | 0.079 | 0.075 |
| Studying | 0.047 | 0.053 | 0.066 | 0.066 | 0.076 | 0.068 | 0.075 | 0.070 | 0.063 | 0.062 |
| Other | 0.145 | 0.151 | 0.170 | 0.156 | 0.179 | 0.180 | 0.165 | 0.149 | 0.162 | 0.175 |
| Without experience | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.659 | 0.655 | 0.614 | 0.607 | 0.588 | 0.575 | 0.591 | 0.610 | 0.630 | 0.598 |
| Seeking work | 0.093 | 0.070 | 0.054 | 0.057 | 0.043 | 0.039 | 0.035 | 0.048 | 0.040 | 0.045 |
| Studying | 0.122 | 0.145 | 0.194 | 0.191 | 0.207 | 0.225 | 0.219 | 0.201 | 0.195 | 0.192 |
| Other | 0.126 | 0.131 | 0.138 | 0.145 | 0.161 | 0.161 | 0.155 | 0.141 | 0.135 | 0.165 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| With experience | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Employment rate | 0.784 | 0.768 | 0.786 | 0.805 | 0.804 | 0.817 | 0.818 | 0.827 | 0.825 | 0.822 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.216 | 0.232 | 0.214 | 0.195 | 0.196 | 0.183 | 0.182 | 0.173 | 0.175 | 0.178 |
| Without experience | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Employment rate | 0.834 | 0.856 | 0.856 | 0.859 | 0.878 | 0.895 | 0.909 | 0.883 | 0.894 | 0.883 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.166 | 0.144 | 0.144 | 0.141 | 0.122 | 0.105 | 0.091 | 0.117 | 0.106 | 0.117 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| With experience | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.669 | 0.669 | 0.654 | 0.655 | 0.655 | 0.650 | 0.669 | 0.670 | 0.665 | 0.656 |
| Informality | 0.624 | 0.644 | 0.659 | 0.654 | 0.645 | 0.615 | 0.598 | 0.578 | 0.572 | 0.575 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.152 | 0.180 | 0.161 | 0.151 | 0.144 | 0.132 | 0.126 | 0.122 | 0.140 | 0.140 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.239 | 0.216 | 0.236 | 0.249 | 0.230 | 0.231 | 0.221 | 0.222 | 0.215 | 0.209 |
| Sector: Services | 0.609 | 0.604 | 0.603 | 0.600 | 0.626 | 0.637 | 0.653 | 0.656 | 0.645 | 0.651 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.043 | 0.032 | 0.047 | 0.045 | 0.051 | 0.055 | 0.060 | 0.069 | 0.069 | 0.063 |
| Without experience | ||||||||||
| Salaried occupation | 0.488 | 0.470 | 0.421 | 0.418 | 0.416 | 0.423 | 0.418 | 0.439 | 0.446 | 0.439 |
| Informality | 0.789 | 0.799 | 0.832 | 0.830 | 0.829 | 0.820 | 0.819 | 0.790 | 0.781 | 0.774 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.223 | 0.241 | 0.250 | 0.241 | 0.227 | 0.230 | 0.247 | 0.217 | 0.220 | 0.235 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.189 | 0.189 | 0.166 | 0.184 | 0.182 | 0.161 | 0.165 | 0.169 | 0.170 | 0.167 |
| Sector: Services | 0.587 | 0.569 | 0.583 | 0.575 | 0.591 | 0.609 | 0.588 | 0.613 | 0.610 | 0.598 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.028 | 0.025 | 0.029 | 0.031 | 0.037 | 0.040 | 0.042 | 0.041 | 0.047 | 0.043 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| With experience | 542,193 | 533,520 | 536,718 | 559,216 | 560,676 | 599,597 | 610,078 | 598,259 | 585,625 | 591,337 |
| Without experience | 421,243 | 422,818 | 418,807 | 423,611 | 418,927 | 412,597 | 411,887 | 445,508 | 432,209 | 442,297 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
[ii] Notes: We define individuals with experience as those who report that this is not their first job or first time seeking employment. Individuals without experience are those who report being employed or looking for work for the first time.
Table A11
Trends in labor market indicators for youth and adults (individuals ≥18 years)
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Youth | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.494 | 0.502 | 0.499 | 0.511 | 0.508 | 0.510 | 0.513 | 0.526 | 0.514 | 0.509 |
| Seeking work | 0.076 | 0.078 | 0.064 | 0.061 | 0.050 | 0.047 | 0.051 | 0.055 | 0.052 | 0.052 |
| Studying | 0.161 | 0.161 | 0.170 | 0.168 | 0.157 | 0.171 | 0.174 | 0.172 | 0.172 | 0.174 |
| Other | 0.268 | 0.259 | 0.267 | 0.260 | 0.286 | 0.271 | 0.262 | 0.247 | 0.261 | 0.265 |
| Adults | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.621 | 0.626 | 0.631 | 0.644 | 0.634 | 0.637 | 0.647 | 0.659 | 0.650 | 0.649 |
| Seeking work | 0.034 | 0.038 | 0.033 | 0.028 | 0.027 | 0.025 | 0.024 | 0.027 | 0.026 | 0.024 |
| Studying | 0.004 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.004 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.006 |
| Other | 0.340 | 0.331 | 0.331 | 0.323 | 0.334 | 0.333 | 0.324 | 0.308 | 0.319 | 0.321 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Youth | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.695 | 0.719 | 0.731 | 0.734 | 0.742 | 0.739 | 0.736 | 0.740 | 0.728 | 0.736 |
| Employment rate | 0.559 | 0.575 | 0.592 | 0.604 | 0.612 | 0.619 | 0.618 | 0.625 | 0.612 | 0.616 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.194 | 0.201 | 0.191 | 0.178 | 0.174 | 0.162 | 0.160 | 0.155 | 0.159 | 0.164 |
| Adults | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.753 | 0.777 | 0.792 | 0.795 | 0.803 | 0.808 | 0.805 | 0.810 | 0.809 | 0.809 |
| Employment rate | 0.693 | 0.708 | 0.727 | 0.737 | 0.745 | 0.753 | 0.755 | 0.758 | 0.755 | 0.754 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.079 | 0.089 | 0.082 | 0.073 | 0.072 | 0.068 | 0.062 | 0.064 | 0.067 | 0.068 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Youth | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.612 | 0.615 | 0.599 | 0.600 | 0.605 | 0.606 | 0.621 | 0.626 | 0.621 | 0.617 |
| Informality | 0.658 | 0.672 | 0.684 | 0.678 | 0.666 | 0.645 | 0.630 | 0.610 | 0.603 | 0.605 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.166 | 0.187 | 0.170 | 0.158 | 0.147 | 0.142 | 0.140 | 0.134 | 0.148 | 0.149 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.222 | 0.212 | 0.219 | 0.234 | 0.222 | 0.218 | 0.213 | 0.213 | 0.205 | 0.202 |
| Sector: Services | 0.612 | 0.602 | 0.612 | 0.607 | 0.631 | 0.640 | 0.647 | 0.653 | 0.647 | 0.649 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.041 | 0.032 | 0.046 | 0.045 | 0.052 | 0.056 | 0.061 | 0.066 | 0.068 | 0.062 |
| Adults | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.465 | 0.456 | 0.449 | 0.444 | 0.446 | 0.461 | 0.467 | 0.474 | 0.472 | 0.470 |
| Informality | 0.654 | 0.666 | 0.671 | 0.658 | 0.654 | 0.631 | 0.618 | 0.614 | 0.603 | 0.596 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.173 | 0.176 | 0.178 | 0.170 | 0.168 | 0.163 | 0.161 | 0.158 | 0.159 | 0.165 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.202 | 0.208 | 0.213 | 0.214 | 0.208 | 0.201 | 0.201 | 0.197 | 0.197 | 0.195 |
| Sector: Services | 0.625 | 0.616 | 0.609 | 0.616 | 0.624 | 0.636 | 0.639 | 0.644 | 0.644 | 0.641 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.039 | 0.037 | 0.042 | 0.047 | 0.048 | 0.055 | 0.054 | 0.057 | 0.054 | 0.057 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Youth | 518,016 | 513,905 | 524,184 | 543,609 | 546,754 | 574,451 | 585,558 | 578,649 | 564,534 | 568,861 |
| Adults | 648,638 | 633,078 | 653,693 | 671,388 | 667,310 | 690,540 | 698,319 | 676,237 | 681,665 | 681,402 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Table A12
Trends in youth labor market indicators by gender (individuals ≥ 18 years)
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Male | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.648 | 0.665 | 0.655 | 0.672 | 0.663 | 0.667 | 0.664 | 0.671 | 0.666 | 0.661 |
| Seeking work | 0.094 | 0.098 | 0.083 | 0.080 | 0.070 | 0.063 | 0.069 | 0.066 | 0.067 | 0.066 |
| Studying | 0.169 | 0.161 | 0.170 | 0.166 | 0.161 | 0.169 | 0.174 | 0.170 | 0.171 | 0.172 |
| Other | 0.089 | 0.077 | 0.092 | 0.081 | 0.106 | 0.101 | 0.093 | 0.093 | 0.096 | 0.100 |
| Female | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.346 | 0.347 | 0.349 | 0.353 | 0.360 | 0.358 | 0.367 | 0.385 | 0.368 | 0.362 |
| Seeking work | 0.060 | 0.060 | 0.046 | 0.043 | 0.031 | 0.033 | 0.034 | 0.044 | 0.039 | 0.038 |
| Studying | 0.154 | 0.161 | 0.169 | 0.170 | 0.153 | 0.172 | 0.175 | 0.173 | 0.173 | 0.175 |
| Other | 0.440 | 0.432 | 0.436 | 0.434 | 0.457 | 0.437 | 0.424 | 0.397 | 0.420 | 0.425 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Male | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.817 | 0.843 | 0.850 | 0.852 | 0.860 | 0.849 | 0.847 | 0.845 | 0.839 | 0.838 |
| Employment rate | 0.692 | 0.714 | 0.726 | 0.741 | 0.742 | 0.744 | 0.741 | 0.747 | 0.737 | 0.737 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.153 | 0.152 | 0.146 | 0.130 | 0.137 | 0.123 | 0.124 | 0.116 | 0.121 | 0.121 |
| Female | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.577 | 0.600 | 0.617 | 0.618 | 0.629 | 0.632 | 0.629 | 0.638 | 0.621 | 0.637 |
| Employment rate | 0.432 | 0.441 | 0.462 | 0.469 | 0.488 | 0.498 | 0.499 | 0.506 | 0.491 | 0.497 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.251 | 0.266 | 0.251 | 0.242 | 0.223 | 0.213 | 0.206 | 0.206 | 0.209 | 0.220 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Male | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.595 | 0.602 | 0.596 | 0.599 | 0.607 | 0.610 | 0.621 | 0.615 | 0.610 | 0.614 |
| Informality | 0.675 | 0.695 | 0.690 | 0.690 | 0.679 | 0.651 | 0.644 | 0.624 | 0.618 | 0.612 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.230 | 0.261 | 0.233 | 0.216 | 0.200 | 0.195 | 0.192 | 0.181 | 0.203 | 0.201 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.252 | 0.235 | 0.254 | 0.274 | 0.264 | 0.262 | 0.254 | 0.264 | 0.253 | 0.247 |
| Sector: Services | 0.518 | 0.503 | 0.513 | 0.510 | 0.536 | 0.543 | 0.554 | 0.555 | 0.543 | 0.552 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.040 | 0.032 | 0.051 | 0.049 | 0.058 | 0.059 | 0.061 | 0.073 | 0.076 | 0.068 |
| Female | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.639 | 0.636 | 0.604 | 0.601 | 0.602 | 0.601 | 0.622 | 0.641 | 0.638 | 0.620 |
| Informality | 0.633 | 0.635 | 0.675 | 0.659 | 0.647 | 0.635 | 0.610 | 0.589 | 0.582 | 0.596 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.059 | 0.060 | 0.064 | 0.062 | 0.064 | 0.062 | 0.061 | 0.062 | 0.065 | 0.071 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.171 | 0.172 | 0.160 | 0.169 | 0.157 | 0.149 | 0.151 | 0.134 | 0.132 | 0.132 |
| Sector: Services | 0.770 | 0.769 | 0.775 | 0.769 | 0.779 | 0.790 | 0.788 | 0.804 | 0.803 | 0.797 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.043 | 0.033 | 0.038 | 0.039 | 0.043 | 0.051 | 0.061 | 0.057 | 0.057 | 0.053 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Male | 529,460 | 525,541 | 541,728 | 564,638 | 565,404 | 595,007 | 592,135 | 598,040 | 579,678 | 589,262 |
| Female | 499,940 | 495,359 | 496,826 | 510,062 | 518,452 | 543,093 | 575,902 | 550,245 | 542,167 | 538,562 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Table A13
Trends in youth labor market indicators by region (individuals ≥18 years)
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Urban | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.500 | 0.505 | 0.500 | 0.516 | 0.517 | 0.517 | 0.525 | 0.535 | 0.517 | 0.511 |
| Seeking work | 0.081 | 0.083 | 0.070 | 0.067 | 0.053 | 0.051 | 0.054 | 0.058 | 0.056 | 0.058 |
| Studying | 0.185 | 0.184 | 0.194 | 0.191 | 0.180 | 0.194 | 0.195 | 0.195 | 0.195 | 0.196 |
| Other | 0.234 | 0.228 | 0.236 | 0.226 | 0.251 | 0.238 | 0.226 | 0.212 | 0.232 | 0.236 |
| Rural | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.474 | 0.492 | 0.495 | 0.495 | 0.473 | 0.484 | 0.464 | 0.490 | 0.502 | 0.505 |
| Seeking work | 0.059 | 0.061 | 0.042 | 0.041 | 0.037 | 0.034 | 0.040 | 0.043 | 0.039 | 0.027 |
| Studying | 0.079 | 0.078 | 0.084 | 0.088 | 0.072 | 0.084 | 0.093 | 0.079 | 0.080 | 0.084 |
| Other | 0.388 | 0.369 | 0.379 | 0.376 | 0.418 | 0.398 | 0.403 | 0.388 | 0.379 | 0.384 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Urban | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.711 | 0.735 | 0.747 | 0.747 | 0.757 | 0.752 | 0.752 | 0.751 | 0.738 | 0.742 |
| Employment rate | 0.568 | 0.577 | 0.593 | 0.606 | 0.617 | 0.624 | 0.625 | 0.632 | 0.614 | 0.608 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.201 | 0.214 | 0.205 | 0.188 | 0.185 | 0.171 | 0.169 | 0.160 | 0.169 | 0.181 |
| Rural | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.637 | 0.664 | 0.677 | 0.689 | 0.683 | 0.689 | 0.670 | 0.695 | 0.685 | 0.712 |
| Employment rate | 0.531 | 0.566 | 0.586 | 0.595 | 0.594 | 0.603 | 0.589 | 0.599 | 0.605 | 0.645 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.167 | 0.147 | 0.135 | 0.137 | 0.131 | 0.125 | 0.122 | 0.138 | 0.117 | 0.093 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Urban | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.641 | 0.652 | 0.640 | 0.640 | 0.645 | 0.640 | 0.658 | 0.671 | 0.668 | 0.659 |
| Informality | 0.602 | 0.606 | 0.627 | 0.617 | 0.603 | 0.588 | 0.571 | 0.546 | 0.545 | 0.546 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.041 | 0.048 | 0.040 | 0.030 | 0.032 | 0.027 | 0.029 | 0.029 | 0.037 | 0.036 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.246 | 0.231 | 0.239 | 0.251 | 0.240 | 0.234 | 0.227 | 0.228 | 0.220 | 0.219 |
| Sector: Services | 0.713 | 0.720 | 0.721 | 0.719 | 0.728 | 0.739 | 0.743 | 0.743 | 0.743 | 0.746 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.051 | 0.041 | 0.057 | 0.056 | 0.063 | 0.068 | 0.073 | 0.080 | 0.082 | 0.075 |
| Rural | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.504 | 0.484 | 0.454 | 0.459 | 0.447 | 0.477 | 0.466 | 0.436 | 0.431 | 0.454 |
| Informality | 0.871 | 0.907 | 0.886 | 0.896 | 0.914 | 0.864 | 0.877 | 0.874 | 0.843 | 0.834 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.627 | 0.672 | 0.623 | 0.609 | 0.596 | 0.588 | 0.602 | 0.566 | 0.608 | 0.586 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.132 | 0.142 | 0.146 | 0.176 | 0.153 | 0.155 | 0.154 | 0.149 | 0.142 | 0.137 |
| Sector: Services | 0.241 | 0.186 | 0.231 | 0.215 | 0.250 | 0.257 | 0.245 | 0.285 | 0.250 | 0.277 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.004 | 0.001 | 0.007 | 0.006 | 0.009 | 0.008 | 0.009 | 0.011 | 0.010 | 0.010 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Urban | 560,863 | 557,661 | 568,754 | 587,201 | 592,250 | 619,372 | 631,007 | 623,587 | 603,425 | 607,953 |
| Rural | 349,239 | 343,785 | 352,753 | 378,546 | 356,741 | 391,381 | 381,944 | 378,846 | 394,458 | 409,257 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Table A14
Trends in youth labor market indicators by educational level (individuals ≥ 18 years)
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Skilled | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.664 | 0.686 | 0.655 | 0.683 | 0.661 | 0.668 | 0.673 | 0.693 | 0.671 | 0.676 |
| Seeking work | 0.126 | 0.109 | 0.097 | 0.090 | 0.064 | 0.066 | 0.069 | 0.076 | 0.076 | 0.071 |
| Studying | 0.060 | 0.066 | 0.077 | 0.077 | 0.088 | 0.088 | 0.085 | 0.079 | 0.073 | 0.065 |
| Other | 0.150 | 0.139 | 0.170 | 0.150 | 0.187 | 0.178 | 0.174 | 0.152 | 0.180 | 0.188 |
| Unskilled | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.438 | 0.446 | 0.444 | 0.461 | 0.460 | 0.454 | 0.453 | 0.468 | 0.458 | 0.456 |
| Seeking work | 0.080 | 0.084 | 0.065 | 0.063 | 0.050 | 0.044 | 0.046 | 0.052 | 0.048 | 0.050 |
| Studying | 0.258 | 0.257 | 0.265 | 0.254 | 0.239 | 0.263 | 0.267 | 0.256 | 0.253 | 0.253 |
| Other | 0.224 | 0.213 | 0.226 | 0.222 | 0.252 | 0.239 | 0.234 | 0.223 | 0.241 | 0.242 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Skilled | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.904 | 0.909 | 0.901 | 0.913 | 0.894 | 0.902 | 0.895 | 0.905 | 0.902 | 0.912 |
| Employment rate | 0.724 | 0.749 | 0.734 | 0.757 | 0.747 | 0.759 | 0.760 | 0.768 | 0.758 | 0.770 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.200 | 0.177 | 0.186 | 0.171 | 0.164 | 0.159 | 0.151 | 0.151 | 0.159 | 0.156 |
| Unskilled | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.661 | 0.685 | 0.701 | 0.702 | 0.717 | 0.699 | 0.695 | 0.694 | 0.680 | 0.692 |
| Employment rate | 0.511 | 0.523 | 0.548 | 0.559 | 0.573 | 0.573 | 0.571 | 0.576 | 0.562 | 0.566 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.227 | 0.237 | 0.219 | 0.203 | 0.200 | 0.180 | 0.179 | 0.171 | 0.172 | 0.183 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Skilled | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.749 | 0.729 | 0.717 | 0.715 | 0.711 | 0.724 | 0.753 | 0.752 | 0.743 | 0.730 |
| Informality | 0.279 | 0.287 | 0.332 | 0.324 | 0.331 | 0.318 | 0.295 | 0.280 | 0.281 | 0.290 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.017 | 0.026 | 0.017 | 0.022 | 0.020 | 0.013 | 0.009 | 0.017 | 0.025 | 0.031 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.174 | 0.152 | 0.166 | 0.181 | 0.160 | 0.175 | 0.175 | 0.175 | 0.167 | 0.169 |
| Sector: Services | 0.809 | 0.822 | 0.817 | 0.797 | 0.820 | 0.811 | 0.816 | 0.808 | 0.808 | 0.800 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.207 | 0.160 | 0.183 | 0.180 | 0.188 | 0.175 | 0.195 | 0.199 | 0.234 | 0.208 |
| Unskilled | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.648 | 0.672 | 0.639 | 0.630 | 0.636 | 0.618 | 0.635 | 0.646 | 0.641 | 0.629 |
| Informality | 0.617 | 0.610 | 0.646 | 0.650 | 0.648 | 0.657 | 0.653 | 0.620 | 0.617 | 0.630 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.070 | 0.077 | 0.075 | 0.083 | 0.075 | 0.076 | 0.088 | 0.091 | 0.097 | 0.103 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.234 | 0.221 | 0.225 | 0.234 | 0.239 | 0.221 | 0.222 | 0.214 | 0.214 | 0.207 |
| Sector: Services | 0.695 | 0.701 | 0.701 | 0.683 | 0.686 | 0.703 | 0.690 | 0.695 | 0.689 | 0.689 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.017 | 0.017 | 0.033 | 0.027 | 0.030 | 0.033 | 0.029 | 0.036 | 0.029 | 0.026 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Skilled | 901,546 | 900,207 | 894,645 | 889,313 | 869,862 | 886,454 | 892,135 | 858,124 | 861,382 | 822,645 |
| Unskilled | 494,144 | 497,160 | 505,287 | 509,011 | 508,848 | 519,201 | 517,179 | 521,882 | 507,599 | 517,198 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
[ii] Notes: We define skilled individuals as those who report at least some post-secondary education. Unskilled individuals are those who have complete high school or less.
Table A15
Trends in youth labor market indicators by SES (individuals ≥18 years)
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| Medium/High | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.515 | 0.512 | 0.508 | 0.527 | 0.522 | 0.517 | 0.524 | 0.534 | 0.501 | 0.518 |
| Seeking work | 0.066 | 0.065 | 0.049 | 0.052 | 0.044 | 0.040 | 0.038 | 0.046 | 0.045 | 0.054 |
| Studying | 0.252 | 0.272 | 0.283 | 0.277 | 0.270 | 0.292 | 0.294 | 0.285 | 0.301 | 0.288 |
| Other | 0.167 | 0.151 | 0.160 | 0.144 | 0.165 | 0.151 | 0.144 | 0.135 | 0.153 | 0.140 |
| Low | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.487 | 0.501 | 0.495 | 0.507 | 0.505 | 0.509 | 0.510 | 0.525 | 0.519 | 0.508 |
| Seeking work | 0.081 | 0.084 | 0.068 | 0.066 | 0.053 | 0.051 | 0.058 | 0.060 | 0.056 | 0.052 |
| Studying | 0.118 | 0.128 | 0.136 | 0.134 | 0.127 | 0.135 | 0.138 | 0.142 | 0.139 | 0.142 |
| Other | 0.314 | 0.287 | 0.300 | 0.293 | 0.315 | 0.305 | 0.294 | 0.274 | 0.286 | 0.299 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| Medium/High | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.705 | 0.714 | 0.734 | 0.739 | 0.754 | 0.738 | 0.736 | 0.724 | 0.708 | 0.720 |
| Employment rate | 0.574 | 0.581 | 0.598 | 0.618 | 0.624 | 0.621 | 0.625 | 0.625 | 0.602 | 0.607 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.186 | 0.187 | 0.186 | 0.164 | 0.172 | 0.159 | 0.151 | 0.136 | 0.149 | 0.157 |
| Low | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | 0.696 | 0.728 | 0.738 | 0.737 | 0.743 | 0.742 | 0.739 | 0.747 | 0.735 | 0.742 |
| Employment rate | 0.559 | 0.579 | 0.593 | 0.599 | 0.610 | 0.618 | 0.616 | 0.626 | 0.614 | 0.615 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.196 | 0.205 | 0.197 | 0.187 | 0.179 | 0.167 | 0.167 | 0.163 | 0.165 | 0.171 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| Medium/High | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.701 | 0.718 | 0.696 | 0.678 | 0.706 | 0.693 | 0.718 | 0.713 | 0.729 | 0.725 |
| Informality | 0.476 | 0.469 | 0.490 | 0.512 | 0.493 | 0.466 | 0.450 | 0.419 | 0.429 | 0.413 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.036 | 0.038 | 0.025 | 0.019 | 0.028 | 0.019 | 0.035 | 0.016 | 0.021 | 0.010 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.212 | 0.187 | 0.206 | 0.194 | 0.197 | 0.181 | 0.174 | 0.180 | 0.179 | 0.172 |
| Sector: Services | 0.752 | 0.775 | 0.768 | 0.787 | 0.775 | 0.801 | 0.790 | 0.804 | 0.800 | 0.819 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.084 | 0.084 | 0.100 | 0.111 | 0.108 | 0.126 | 0.118 | 0.136 | 0.137 | 0.133 |
| Low | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.581 | 0.596 | 0.585 | 0.595 | 0.585 | 0.593 | 0.599 | 0.612 | 0.605 | 0.599 |
| Informality | 0.726 | 0.716 | 0.729 | 0.709 | 0.706 | 0.690 | 0.676 | 0.653 | 0.636 | 0.653 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.197 | 0.202 | 0.182 | 0.171 | 0.158 | 0.160 | 0.150 | 0.151 | 0.164 | 0.166 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.236 | 0.221 | 0.226 | 0.248 | 0.232 | 0.230 | 0.227 | 0.227 | 0.215 | 0.215 |
| Sector: Services | 0.568 | 0.577 | 0.592 | 0.581 | 0.610 | 0.610 | 0.623 | 0.623 | 0.621 | 0.618 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.021 | 0.018 | 0.030 | 0.024 | 0.036 | 0.034 | 0.043 | 0.047 | 0.051 | 0.042 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| Medium/High | 698,510 | 754,165 | 777,570 | 750,044 | 750,656 | 814,320 | 802,351 | 804,612 | 767,492 | 769,925 |
| Low | 443,185 | 450,694 | 452,873 | 489,867 | 490,885 | 501,767 | 520,435 | 517,503 | 515,560 | 509,870 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
[ii] Notes: We define individuals as Medium/High SES as those who report their strata as 3, 4, 5, or 6. Individuals with low SES are those who report their strata as 1 and 2.
Table A16
Trends in youth labor market indicators by migration status (individuals ≥ 18 years)
| 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | |||||
| Non-migrants | |||||
| Working | 0.508 | 0.510 | 0.522 | 0.510 | 0.507 |
| Seeking work | 0.050 | 0.054 | 0.057 | 0.054 | 0.052 |
| Studying | 0.178 | 0.180 | 0.179 | 0.179 | 0.182 |
| Other | 0.265 | 0.256 | 0.243 | 0.258 | 0.259 |
| Migrants | |||||
| Working | 0.522 | 0.527 | 0.545 | 0.532 | 0.521 |
| Seeking work | 0.035 | 0.038 | 0.044 | 0.048 | 0.050 |
| Studying | 0.141 | 0.149 | 0.141 | 0.144 | 0.141 |
| Other | 0.302 | 0.285 | 0.270 | 0.276 | 0.288 |
| B. Labor market indicators | |||||
| Non-migrants | |||||
| Labor force participation | 0.742 | 0.736 | 0.740 | 0.728 | 0.735 |
| Employment rate | 0.620 | 0.617 | 0.622 | 0.608 | 0.611 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.164 | 0.161 | 0.160 | 0.165 | 0.168 |
| Migrants | |||||
| Labor force participation | 0.727 | 0.736 | 0.737 | 0.730 | 0.742 |
| Employment rate | 0.617 | 0.622 | 0.638 | 0.630 | 0.632 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.151 | 0.155 | 0.135 | 0.137 | 0.148 |
| C. Employment quality | |||||
| Non-migrants | |||||
| Wage earners | 0.587 | 0.608 | 0.614 | 0.606 | 0.609 |
| Informality | 0.652 | 0.640 | 0.617 | 0.608 | 0.606 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.143 | 0.143 | 0.131 | 0.146 | 0.150 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.218 | 0.219 | 0.212 | 0.207 | 0.198 |
| Sector: Services | 0.640 | 0.638 | 0.657 | 0.646 | 0.651 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.054 | 0.060 | 0.069 | 0.070 | 0.063 |
| Migrants | |||||
| Wage earners | 0.690 | 0.677 | 0.677 | 0.684 | 0.649 |
| Informality | 0.612 | 0.590 | 0.577 | 0.582 | 0.601 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.142 | 0.129 | 0.145 | 0.157 | 0.146 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.217 | 0.189 | 0.217 | 0.196 | 0.214 |
| Sector: Services | 0.641 | 0.682 | 0.639 | 0.647 | 0.640 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.063 | 0.063 | 0.056 | 0.060 | 0.058 |
| D. Real monthly labor income | |||||
| Non-migrants | 563,875 | 566,980 | 563,227 | 553,099 | 558,292 |
| Migrants | 620,364 | 661,810 | 647,402 | 611,072 | 612,268 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
[ii] Notes: We define individuals as migrants if they report living in a different municipality 5 years before the survey and non-migrants otherwise.
Table A17
Trends in youth labor market indicators by level of experience (individuals ≥18 years)
| 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Time use | ||||||||||
| With experience | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.705 | 0.687 | 0.681 | 0.702 | 0.690 | 0.697 | 0.701 | 0.716 | 0.706 | 0.695 |
| Seeking work | 0.113 | 0.123 | 0.096 | 0.090 | 0.073 | 0.069 | 0.077 | 0.080 | 0.080 | 0.075 |
| Studying | 0.039 | 0.043 | 0.056 | 0.053 | 0.059 | 0.057 | 0.059 | 0.057 | 0.053 | 0.055 |
| Other | 0.143 | 0.148 | 0.167 | 0.155 | 0.178 | 0.177 | 0.163 | 0.148 | 0.161 | 0.175 |
| Without experience | ||||||||||
| Working | 0.709 | 0.709 | 0.677 | 0.671 | 0.661 | 0.655 | 0.672 | 0.684 | 0.696 | 0.670 |
| Seeking work | 0.098 | 0.076 | 0.064 | 0.064 | 0.047 | 0.047 | 0.042 | 0.055 | 0.046 | 0.054 |
| Studying | 0.067 | 0.078 | 0.113 | 0.116 | 0.120 | 0.130 | 0.123 | 0.119 | 0.111 | 0.110 |
| Other | 0.125 | 0.137 | 0.145 | 0.148 | 0.172 | 0.168 | 0.163 | 0.142 | 0.147 | 0.167 |
| B. Labor market indicators | ||||||||||
| With experience | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Employment rate | 0.788 | 0.773 | 0.793 | 0.810 | 0.809 | 0.821 | 0.821 | 0.833 | 0.828 | 0.824 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.212 | 0.227 | 0.207 | 0.190 | 0.191 | 0.179 | 0.179 | 0.167 | 0.172 | 0.176 |
| Without experience | ||||||||||
| Labor force participation | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Employment rate | 0.837 | 0.853 | 0.849 | 0.856 | 0.872 | 0.891 | 0.900 | 0.880 | 0.880 | 0.874 |
| Unemployment rate | 0.163 | 0.147 | 0.151 | 0.144 | 0.128 | 0.109 | 0.100 | 0.120 | 0.120 | 0.126 |
| C. Employment quality | ||||||||||
| With experience | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.671 | 0.672 | 0.661 | 0.657 | 0.660 | 0.654 | 0.677 | 0.678 | 0.669 | 0.658 |
| Informality | 0.608 | 0.628 | 0.644 | 0.638 | 0.625 | 0.599 | 0.581 | 0.562 | 0.559 | 0.565 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.144 | 0.170 | 0.155 | 0.140 | 0.132 | 0.125 | 0.116 | 0.116 | 0.133 | 0.134 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.242 | 0.218 | 0.235 | 0.251 | 0.233 | 0.233 | 0.225 | 0.224 | 0.215 | 0.211 |
| Sector: Services | 0.615 | 0.612 | 0.610 | 0.609 | 0.634 | 0.642 | 0.659 | 0.660 | 0.652 | 0.656 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.045 | 0.033 | 0.049 | 0.047 | 0.054 | 0.057 | 0.062 | 0.072 | 0.071 | 0.065 |
| Without experience | ||||||||||
| Wage earners | 0.511 | 0.511 | 0.455 | 0.456 | 0.455 | 0.471 | 0.458 | 0.477 | 0.485 | 0.491 |
| Informality | 0.745 | 0.751 | 0.776 | 0.779 | 0.775 | 0.773 | 0.774 | 0.744 | 0.731 | 0.727 |
| Sector: Agriculture | 0.204 | 0.218 | 0.204 | 0.204 | 0.187 | 0.193 | 0.212 | 0.184 | 0.193 | 0.196 |
| Sector: Manufacturing | 0.187 | 0.200 | 0.179 | 0.192 | 0.192 | 0.173 | 0.178 | 0.182 | 0.177 | 0.175 |
| Sector: Services | 0.609 | 0.582 | 0.617 | 0.603 | 0.620 | 0.634 | 0.610 | 0.635 | 0.631 | 0.629 |
| Occupation: STEM | 0.034 | 0.030 | 0.038 | 0.041 | 0.047 | 0.052 | 0.056 | 0.051 | 0.058 | 0.054 |
| D. Real monthly earnings | ||||||||||
| With experience | 552,698 | 542,829 | 547,344 | 571,560 | 577,223 | 613,379 | 625,119 | 609,815 | 594,804 | 597,400 |
| Without experience | 455,394 | 456,405 | 465,643 | 465,397 | 456,607 | 452,350 | 457,866 | 483,739 | 469,764 | 475,724 |
[i] Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
[ii] Notes: We define individuals with experience as those who report that this is not their first job or first time seeking employment. Individuals without experience are those who report being employed or looking for work for the first time.
Figure A1
Seasonality of youth labor market indicators in Colombia.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from (LABLAC, 2018) data.
Notes: The data for Colombia are drawn from the GEIH from 2008 to 2016. Youth are defined as people aged between 15 and 24.
Figure A2
Trends in economic sector for youth and adults.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.
Figure A3
Trends in STEM occupation for youth and adults.
Source: Authors’ elaboration from GEIH third quarter microdata for 2008–2017.