From unemployment to self-employment: The role of entrepreneurship training

	Project GATE			GATE II
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia
Number of applicants	722	869	226	1,175	435
Male	0.546	0.627	0.628	0.558	0.506
Female	0.454	0.373	0.372	0.442	0.494
White	0.414	0.777	0.889	0.600	0.513
Nonwhite	0.586	0.223	0.111	0.400	0.487
Married	0.341	0.514	0.443	0.517	0.503
Disabled	0.061	0.073	0.115	0.057	0.032
18–25 years old	0.039	0.017	0.018	0.024	–
25–34 years old	0.226	0.165	0.173	0.146	–
35–44 years old	0.313	0.345	0.305	0.275	–
45–54 years old	0.314	0.354	0.381	0.317	0.503
55+ years old	0.108	0.119	0.124	0.237	0.497
Missing	–	–	–	0.121	–
No high school diploma	0.042	0.022	0.062	0.066	0.009
High school diploma	0.298	0.167	0.301	0.359	0.103
Some college	0.381	0.358	0.336	0.243	0.297
College degree	0.280	0.454	0.301	0.212	0.591
Self-employment experience	0.226	0.257	0.332	0.313	0.441
Family business	0.639	0.768	0.748	0.491	–
Relevant work experience	0.796	0.829	0.810	0.373	0.885
Business plan	0.235	0.181	0.181	0.116	0.053
Bad/no credit history	0.573	0.331	0.429	0.534	0.205
Family financial support	0.418	0.480	0.473	0.521	0.559
Household income
Less than $25,000	0.425	0.229	0.407	0.489	0.308
$25,000–$49,999	0.352	0.327	0.367	0.310	0.308
$50,000–$74,999	0.134	0.216	0.146	0.129	0.140
$75,000+	0.089	0.228	0.080	0.072	0.244

[i] Note: Reported are sample proportions.

Table 2

Program effects on training take–up

	Project GATE			GATE II
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia
Any training	0.425 (0.042)***	0.391 (0.033)***	0.279 (0.064)***	0.224 (0.039)***	0.361 (0.050)***
Workshops only	0.100 (043)**	–0.004 (0.035)	0.021 (0.063)	–0.052 (0.034)	–0.169 (0.045)***
Counseling only	0.047 (0.022)**	0.084 (0.025)***	0.192 (0.063)***	0.062 (0.023)***	0.061 (0.029)**
Workshops plus counseling	0.278 (0.036)***	0.311 (034)***	0.066 (0.071)	0.205 (0.035)***	0.460 (0.045)***
Number of workshops	3.8 (0.4)***	2.8 (0.3)***	0.3 (0.7)	1.6 (0.2)***	3.4 (0.3)***
Number of counseling sessions	0.9 (0.1)***	0.9 (0.2)***	0.5 (0.3)*	1.5 (0.4)***	2.6 (0.3)***

[i] Note: Reported are estimated treatment effects with robust standard errors in parentheses.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table 3

Labor market outcomes

	Project GATE						GATE II
Pennsylvania			Minnesota		Maine		North Carolina		Virginia
	Treatment	Control	Treatment	Control	Treatment	Control	Treatment	Control	Treatment	Control
Self-employment
in own business	0.203	0.168	0.343	0.235	0.253	0.258	0.164	0.117	0.129	0.114
as contractor	0.104	0.066	0.121	0.144	0.089	0.154	0.129	0.092	0.208	0.152
any self-employment	0.307	0.235	0.463	0.379	0.342	0.412	0.293	0.209	0.337	0.266
Regular employment	0.473	0.509	0.382	0.420	0.494	0.351	0.418	0.474	0.420	0.500
Any employment	0.780	0.743	0.846	0.799	0.835	0.763	0.710	0.684	0.757	0.766
Self-employment earnings	112 (525)	97 (515)	417 (1,286)	329 (1,303)	425 (1,451)	154 (589)	152 (748)	87 (372)	68 (330)	148 (836)
Regular earnings	1,739 (2,464)	1,636 (2,302)	2,305 (4,315)	2,422 (3,650)	2,232 (352)	1,389 (1,713)	504 (1,658)	453 (859)	823 (1,610)	1,480 (6,366)
Total earnings	1,851 (2,493)	1,733 (2,302)	2,722 (4,383)	2,750 (3,735)	2,657 (3,180)	1,542 (1,752)	656 (1,779)	540 (894)	891 (1,678)	1,628 (6,391)
Has employees	0.058	0.062	0.084	0.075	0.152	0.063	0.035	0.020	0.017	0.025
Number of employees	0.18 (0.94)	0.16 (0.88)	0.32 (1.33)	0.27 (1.32)	0.41 (1.14)	0.21 (1.41)	0.14 (1.13)	0.06 (.47)	0.02 (0.18)	0.04 (0.31)

[i] Note: Reported are sample proportions or sample means with standard deviations in parentheses.

Table 4

Local average treatment effects on labor market outcomes

	Project GATE			GATE II
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia
Self-employment
in own business	0.071 (.086)	.264 (0.089)***	0.254 (0.252)	0.184 (0.133)	0.019 (0.102)
as contractor	0.107 (0.063)*	−0.066 (0.069)	−.388 (.217)*	0.115 (0.117)	0.113 (0.111)
any self-employment	0.179 (0.098)*	0.198 (0.097)**	−0.133 (0.281)	0.299 (0.160)*	0.132 (0.131)
Regular employment	−0.096 (0.111)	−0.128 (0.098)	0.479 (0.287)*	−0.247 (0.180)	−0.181 (0.151)
Any employment	0.083 (0.095)	0.070 (0.076)	0.346 (0.262)	0.052 (0.164)	−0.049 (0.131)
Self-employment earnings	24 (116)	131 (253)	901 (661)	290 (249)	−208 (188)
Regular earnings	207 (528)	−800 (797)	3,086 (1,628)*	181 (559)	−1,871 (1,414)
Total earnings	231 (532)	−669 (796)	3,987 (1,755)**	471 (599)	−2,078 (1,430)
Has employees	−0.003 (054)	−0.008 (0.054)	0.412 (0.194)**	0.056 (0.063)	−0.025 (0.045)
Number of employees	0.08 (0.21)	0.02 (0.26)	0.75 (0.74)	0.42 (0.37)	−0.07 (0.08)
Sample size	N = 467	N = 675	N = 176	N = 825	N = 336

[i] Note: Reported are estimated LATE parameters with robust standard errors in parentheses.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10. The first-stage F-statistic was 0.000 in all cases.

Table 5

Local average treatment effects by selected characteristics, Project GATE

	By self-employment experience		By college degree
	No experience	With experience	No degree	With degree
Pennsylvania	N = 356	N = 111	N = 321	N = 146
Self-employment
in own business	−0.017 (0.102)	0.320 (0.213)	0.070 (0.110)	0.099 (0.160)
as contractor	0.109 (0.066)*	0.146 (0.170)	0.161 (0.084)*	0.067 (0.106)
any self-employment	0.092 (0.113)	0.466 (0.247)*	0.232 (0.130)*	0.165 (0.171)
Regular employment	−0.028 (0.132)	−0.205 (0.255)	−0.129 (0.156)	−0.057 (0.16)
Any employment	0.064 (0.113)	0.260 (0.224)	0.102 (0.135)	0.108 (0.146)
Self-emp. Earnings	3 (120)	151 (349)	91 (128)	25 (241)
Regular earnings	12 (652)	673 (1,034)	−64 (685)	768 (946)
Has employees	−0.045 (0.059)	0.102 (0.158)	−0.060 (0.077)	0.106 (0.081)
Number of employees	−0.10 (0.25)	0.72 (0.51)	−0.00 (0.03)	0.38 (0.41)

Minnesota	N = 493	N = 182	N = 347	N = 328
Self-employment
in own business	0.172 (0.103)*	0.498 (0.183)***	0.169 (0.108)	0.425 (0.151)***
as contractor	−0.045 (0.083)	−0.121 (0.134)	−0.046 (0.091)	−0.092 (0.108)
any self-employment	0.127 (0.118)	0.376 (0.183)**	0.122 (0.122)	0.333 (0.160)**
Regular employment	−0.148 (0.123)	−0.150 (0.173)	−0.220 (0.126)*	−0.024 (0.158)
Any employment	−0.022 (0.092)	0.226 (0.134)*	−0.107 (0.104)	0.309 (0.120)**
Self-emp. Earnings	154 (343)	252 (295)	226 (258)	122 (480)
Regular earnings	−1,290 (1,091)	559 (836)	−459 (787)	−1,093 (1,516)
Has employees	0.005 (0.068)	−0.024 (0.096)	0.068 (0.073)	−0.076 (0.083)
Number of employees	0.08 (0.33)	0.07 (0.46)	0.44 (0.38)	−0.34 (0.36)

Maine	N = 120	N = 56	N = 117	N = 59
Self-employment
in own business	−0.002 (0.222)	0.364 (0.273)	0.250 (0.186)	−0.072 (0.224)
as contractor	−0.123 (0.236)	−0.438 (0.247)*	−0.095 (0.162)	−0.409 (0.204)**
any self-employment	−0.125 (0.271)	−0.074 (0.261)	0.155 (0.196)	−0.482 (0.228)**
Salary employment	0.528 (0.266)*	0.083 (0.333)	0.221 (0.201)	0.624 (0.292)**
Any employment	0.403 (0.235)*	−0.009 (0. 0.354)	0.376 (0.283)	0.142 (0.314)
Self-Emp. Earnings	−128 (607)	4,237 (3,752)	1,168 (728)	957 (2,523)
Salary earnings	7,025 (3,139)**	−4,925 (3,084)	1,885 (1,425)	9,280 (4,961)*
Has employees	0.120 (0.216)	0.531 (0.310)*	0.605 (0.191)***	0.181 (0.224)
Number of employees	0.14 (0.12)	1.92 (0.94)*	0.98 (0.46)**	0.27 (0.41)
	By Credit Access		By Age
	Bad Credit	Good Credit	<45 Years	45+ Years

Pennsylvania	N = 256	N = 211	N = 242	N = 225
Self-employment
in own business	0.199 (0.131)	−0.032 (0.117)	0.177 (0.128)	−0.007 (0.123)
as contractor	0.024 (0.094)	0.223 (0.083)***	0.072 (0.093)	0.129 (0.090)
any self-employment	0.223 (0.145)	0.192 (0.130)	0.249 (0.146)*	0.122 (0.140)
Salary employment	−0.077 (0.171)	−0.135 (0.137)	−0.116 (0.175)	−0.069 (0.150)
Any employment	0.146 (0.147)	0.057 (0.119)	0.133 (0.146)	0.052 (0.135)
Self-Emp. Earnings	131 (157)	−21 (170)	63 (176)	13 (160)
Salary earnings	97 (738)	−50 (718)	−769 (923)	946 (563)
Has employees	0.046 (085)	−0.022 (0.069)	−0.046 (0.083)	0.018 (0.074)
Number of employees	0.45 (0.33)	−0.10 (0.27)	−0.07 (0.31)	0.11 (0.30)

Minnesota	N = 197	N = 478	N = 327	N = 348
Self-employment
in own business	−0.063 (0.150)	0.375 (0.107)***	0.324 (0.153)**	0.235 (0.109)**
as contractor	−0.077 (0.142)	−0.079 (0.078)	−0.086 (0.121)	−0.070 (0.083)
any self-employment	−0.140 (0.185)	0.296 (0.113)***	0.238 (0.167)	0.165 (0.118)
Salary employment	0.113 (0.206)	−0.209 (0.111)*	−0.363 (178)**	0.023 (0.116)
Any employment	−0.027 (0.160)	0.087 (0.086)	−0.125 (0.131)	0.188 (0.096)*
Self-Emp. Earnings	147 (284)	70 (328)	999 (437)**	−415 (328)
Salary earnings	−1,010 (1,309)	−619 (978)	−2,096 (1,510)	−92 (875)
Has employees	−0.132 (0.107)	0.025 (0.063)	0.027 (0.096)	−0.049 (0.065)
Number of employees	−0.29 (0.37)	0.12 (0.33)	−0.30 (0.45)	0.10 (0.33)

Maine	N = 68	N = 108	N = 86	N = 90
Self-employment
in own business	0.461 (0.220)**	−0.068 (0.341)	0.191 (0.267)	0.157 (0.332)
as contractor	−0.403 (0.238)*	−0.138 (0.309)	−0.003 (0.291)	−0.524 (0.318)
any self-employment	0.058 (0.255)	−0.235 (0.352)	0.189 (0.295)	−0.367 (0.334)
Salary employment	−0.054 (0.259)	0.596 (0.315)*	0.259 (0.249)	0.495 (0.301)
Any employment	0.034 (0.239)	0.361 (0.290)	0.448 (0.230)*	0.128 (0.286)
Self-Emp. Earnings	2,158 (1,888)	611 (1,099)	354 (776)	1,557 (1,405)
Salary earnings	1,466 (3,238)	5,004 (2,402)**	4,209 (1,845)**	3,990 (3,365)
Has employees	0.597 (0.329)*	0.143 (0.376)	0.464 (,260)*	0.221 (0.433)
Number of employees	0.92 (0.52)*	0.31 (0.46)	1.07 (1.08)	0.51 (1.3)

[i] Note: Reported are estimated LATE parameters with robust standard errors in parentheses. N is the sample size. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10. The first-stage F-statistic was 0.000 in all cases except for a few characteristics in Maine (0.079 for self-employment experience, 0.128 for college degree, and 0.047 for bad credit).

Table 6

Effects by selected characteristics, GATE II

	By self-employment experience		By college degree
	No self-employment experience	Self-employment experience	No college degree	College degree
North Carolina	N = 559	N = 266	N = 591	N = 234
Self-employment
in own business	0.262 (0.178)	0.015 (0.197)	0.068 (0.140)	0.263 (0.242)
as contractor	0.161 (0.140)	0.074 (0.203)	0.145 (0.122)	0.111 (0.410)
any self-employment	0.423 (0.209)**	0.089 (0.248)	0.213 (0.167)	0.374 (0.330)
Salary employment	−0.343 (0.243)	−0.070 (0.256)	−0.262 (0.194)	0.172 (0.244)
Any employment	0.080 (0.223)	0.018 (0.231)	−0.048 (0.181)	0.546 (0.309)
Self-Emp. earnings	292 (327)	291 (382)	0.299 (253)	1,028 (1,707)
Salary earnings	547 (857)	−227 (577)	476 (694)	−1,194 (1,688)
Has employees	0.143 (0.159)	−0.005 (0.094)	0.081 (0.070)	0.033 (0.047)
Number of employees	0.29 (0.17)	0.05 (0.07)	0.48 (0.44)	−0.31 (1.83)

Virginia	N = 190	N = 146	N = 126	N = 210
Self-employment
in own business	0.200 (0.114)*	−0.271 (0.259)	−0.067 (0.212)	0.073 (0.125)
as contractor	0.128 (0.091)	0.004 (0.319)	−0.171 (0.250)	0.159 (0.133)
any self-employment	0.328 (0.140)**	−0.266 (0.348)	−0.237 (0.310)	0.232 (0.156)
Salary employment	−0.250 (0.185)	0.078 (0.328)	−0.210 (0.347)	−0.159 (0.173)
Any employment	0.078 (0.167)	−0.188 (0.259)	−0.448 (0.335)	0.073 (0.151)
Self-Emp. earnings	148 (87)*	−647 (620)	−509 (354)	−102 (245)
Salary earnings	−1,849 (2,159)	−720 (830)	−9,395 (5,619)*	111 (603)
Has employees	0.037 (0.060)	−0.163 (0.094)*	0.009 (0.088)	−0.039 (0.055)
Number of employees	0.06 (0.08)	−0.41 (0.24)*	−0.15 (0.21)	−0.06 (0.08)
	By Credit	Access	By Age
	Bad Credit	Good Credit	<45 Years	45+ Years

North Carolina	N = 422	N = 403	N = 341	N = 484
Self-employment
in own business	0.310 (0.205)	0.039 (0.181)	0.377 (0.274)	0.090 (0.165)
as contractor	0.039 (0.187)	0.145 (0.150)	0.241 (0.224)	0.063 (0.147)
any self-employment	0.349 (0.253)	0.184 (0.206)	0.618 (0.327)*	0.153 (0.202)
Salary employment	−0.440 (0.304)	−0.069 (0.226)	−0.267 (0.344)	−0.261 (0.228)
Any employment	−0.091 (0.281)	0.115 (0.194)	0.351 (0.330)	−0.108 (0.207)
Self-Emp. earnings	303 (464)	277 (261)	672 (536)	47 (289)
Salary earnings	−62 (1,114)	257 (476)	821 (1,440)	−135 (500)
Has employees	−0.098 (0.097)	0.170 (0.088)*	0.125 (0.120)	0.027 (0.082)
Number of employees	−0.29 (0.29)	0.76 (0.63)	1.23 (1.02)	0.06 (0.34)

Virginia	N = 67	N = 269	N = 0	N = 336
Self-employment
in own business	0.217 (0.424)	−0.015 (0.099)	–	0.019 (0.102)
as contractor	−0.721 (0.654)	0.227 (0.114)**	–	0.113 (0.111)
any self-employment	−.504 (0.670)	0.213 (0.133)	–	0.132 (0.131)
Salary employment	0.442 (0.686)	−0.246 (0.154)	–	−0.181 (0.151)
Any employment	−0.062 (0.465)	−0.013 (0.133)	–	−0.036 (0.130)
Self-Emp. earnings	−616 (858)	−141 (188)		−208 (188)
Salary earnings	198 (1,210)	−2,013 (1,572)		−1,871 (1,414)
Has employees	−0.037 (0.062)	−0.014 (0.051)	–	−0.025 (0.045)
Number of employees	−0.08 (0.09)	−0.05 (0.08)	–	−0.07 (.08)

[i] Note: Reported are estimated LATE parameters with standard errors in parentheses. N is the sample size. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10. The first-stage F-statistic was 0.000 in all cases except for: in North Carolina (0.094 for self-employment experience and 0.065 for age); and in Virginia (0.080 for no self-employment experience and 0.062 for no college degree).

Table A1

Characteristics of unemployed workers

	Unemployed workers in 2003			Unemployed workers in 2009
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia^†
Unemployment rate	0.064	0.049	0.051	0.098	0.063
Male	0.527	0.579	0.515	0.557	0.545
White	0.797	0.849	0.947	0.649	0.707
Married	0.410	0.391	0.511	0.398	0.552
18–25 years old	0.215	0.258	0.194	0.229	–
25–34 years old	0.207	0.192	0.194	0.201	–
35–44 years old	0.225	0.218	0.207	0.186	–
45–54 years old	0.207	0.192	0.242	0.217	0.579
55+ years old	0.147	0.140	0.163	0.167	0.420
No high school diploma	0.131	0.122	0.119	0.178	0.170
High school diploma	0.508	0.437	0.520	0.434	0.373
Some college	0.184	0.225	0.203	0.250	0.206
College degree	0.176	0.220	0.159	0.139	0.252
Less than $25,000	0.376	0.319	0.423	0.449	0.453
$25,000–$49,999	0.291	0.275	0.286	0.266	0.212
$50,000–$74,999	0.161	0.179	0.159	0.147	0.139
$75,000+	0.172	0.227	0.132	0.138	0.196

[i] ^† The Virginia figures are for workers who were at least 45 years old.

Note: Reported are sample proportions.

Source: Authors’ tabulations of the American Community Survey data.

Table A2

Random assignment of program applicants and survey response

	All applicants	Treatment group	Control group
Project GATE
Pennsylvania	722 (100%)	352 (49%)	370 (51%)
Minnesota	869 (100%)	430 (49%)	439 (51%)
Maine	226 (100%)	106 (47%)	120 (53%)
GATE II
North Carolina	1,175 (100%)	881 (75%)	294 (25%)
Virginia	435 (100%)	218 (50%)	217 (50%)

	Survey respondents	Treatment group	Control group

Project GATE
Pennsylvania	467 [65%]	241 [68%]	226 [61%]
Minnesota	675 [78%]	356 [83%]	319 [73%]
Maine	176 [78%]	79 [75%]	97 [81%]
GATE II
North Carolina	825 [70%]	629 [71%]	196 [67%]
Virginia	336 [77%]	178 [82%]	158 [72%]

[i] Note: The top panel reports numbers of applicants with proportions of all applicants in parentheses. The bottom panel reports numbers of survey respondents with survey response rates (number of respondents divided by number of applicants) in brackets.

Table A3

Regression results, treatment likelihood

	Project GATE			GATE II
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia
Male	0.006 (0.040)	0.050 (0.036)	–0.116 (0.073)	–0.064 (0.030)**	0.101 (0.054)*
White	0.044 (0.048)	0.048 (0.044)	–0.181 (0.114)	0.009 (0.031)	–0.022 (0.051)
Married	0.011 (0.049)	–0.003 (0.046)	0.126 (0.087)	0.012 (0.034)	0.001 (0.061)
Disabled	0.001 (0.080)	0.019 (0.067)	0.036 (0.112)	–0.065 (0.063)	–0.117 (0.142)
Age: 18–25 years	–	–	–	–	–
Age: 25–34 years	0.144 (0.105)	–0.143 (0.138)	–0.230 (0.269)	–0.171 (0.115)	–
Age: 35–44 years	0.103 (0.104)	–0.172 (0.136)	–0.375 (0.263)	–0.136 (0.113)	–
Age: 45–54 years	0.205 (0.106)*	–0.241 (0.136)	–0.346 (0.264)	–0.170 (0.113)	–
Age: 55+ years	0.076 (0.116)	–0.279 (0.145)	–0.452 (0.288)	–0.120 (0.114)	–0.003 (0.049)
No high school diploma	–	–	–	–	–
High school diploma	–0.080 (0.100)	0.070 (0.124)	0.017 (0.154)	–0.042 (0.057)	–0.105 (0.266)
Some college	–0.093 (0.099)	0.071 (0.121)	0.060 (0.156)	–0.027 (0.059)	0.043 (0.257)
College degree	–0.047 (0.104)	0.040 (0.121)	0.083 (0.160)	–0.010 (0.062)	0.026 (0.254)
Self–employment experience	–0.017 (0.047)	–0.025 (0.041)	0.047 (0.076)	0.008 (0.032)	0.065 (0.050)
Family business	–0.068 (0.048)	0.028 (0.046)	–0.026 (0.088)	0.008 (0.028)	–
Relevant work experience	0.062 (0.040)	0.035 (0.041)	–0.002 (0.083)	0.028 (0.030)	0.064 (0.076)
Business plan	0.015 (0.045)	–0.073 (0.045)	0.045 (0.095)	–0.032 (0.043)	–0.166 (0.110)
Bad/no credit history	–0.019 (0.043)	0.037 (0.040)	.094 (0.075)	–0.021 (0.038)	0.032 (0.064)
Family financial support	0.040 (0.043)	0.065 (0.042)	–0.070 (0.078)	–0.040 (0.031)	0.058 (0.054)
Household income
Less than $25,000	–	–	–	–	–
$25,000–$49,999	–0.018 (0.043)	0.083 (0.048)*	–0.090 (0.088)	0.019 (0.034)	–0.057 (0.064)
$50,000–$74,999	–0.087 (0.067)	0.090 (0.058)	–0.090 (0.088)	–0.020 (0.049)	–0.101 (0.086)
$75,000+	–0.129 (0.081)	0.058 (0.061)	0.004 (0.155)	0.113 (0.061)*	–0.036 (0.075)
Constant	0.470 (0.138)***	0.416 (0.181)**	0.983 (0.383)***	0.949 (0.121)***	0.380 (0.270)
R–squared	0.0297	0.0329	0.0881	0.0212	0.0334
Observations	722	869	226	1,175	435

[i] Note: Dependent variable is the likelihood of treatment group assignment. Reported are estimated parameters with robust standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table A4

Regression results, likelihood of survey response

	Project GATE			GATE II
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia
Treatment	0.067 (0.036)*	0.084 (0.027)***	–0.029 (0.057)	0.035 (0.030)	0.091 (0.040)**
Male	–0.042 (0.037)	–0.070 (0.029)**	–0.097 (0.061)	–0.081 (0.028)***	–0.057 (0.045)
White	–0.020 (0.046)	–0.049 (0.035)	0.117 (0.094)	–0.010 (0.029)	–0.018 (0.042)
Married	0.010 (0.046)	0.081 (0.037)**	0.029 (0.072)	0.010 (0.031)	–0.108 (0.050)**
Disabled	0.080 (0.075)	0.036 (0.053)	–0.137 (0.065)**	0.129 (0.057)**	0.148 (0.117)
Age: 18–25 years	–0.101 (0.098)	0.040 (0.108)	–0.094 (0.217)	0.021 (0.093)	–
Age: 25–34 years	–0.042 (0.049)	–0.080 (0.041)*	–0.188 (0.086)**	–0.058 (0.042)	–
Age: 35–44 years	–	–	–	–	–
Age: 45–54 years	0.108 (0.046)**	0.062 (0.034)*	–0.113 (0.070)	0.007 (0.043)	–
Age: 55+ years	0.081 (0.065)	0.108 (0.049)**	–0.110 (0.097)	0.064 (0.046)	–
No high school diploma	–	–	–	–	–
High school diploma	–0.073 (0.094)	0.177 (0.099)*	–0.059 (0.126)	–0.040 (0.049)	–0.105 (0.219)
Some college	0.041 (0.105)	0.149 (0.096)	–0.090 (0.127)	–0.073 (0.061)	–0.007 (0.220)
College degree	–0.017 (0.102)	0.190 (0.099)*	–0.003 (0.146)	–0.099 (0.040)**	0.067 (0.210)
Self–employment experience	0.008 (0.044)	0.012 (0.033)	–0.037 (0.062)	0.023 (0.030)	–0.024 (0.041)
Family business	0.075 (0.038)**	0.077 (0.032)**	0.008 (0.068)	–0.021 (0.027)	–
Relevant work experience	–0.008 (0.045)	–0.021 (0.037)	–0.030 (0.072)	–0.034 (0.029)	0.042 (0.038)
Business plan	–0.074 (0.043)*	–0.057 (0.036)	–0.018 (0.078)	0.002 (0.041)	0.013 (0.091)
Bad/no credit history	–0.019 (0.040)	–0.069 (0.032)**	–0.094 (0.062)	0.021 (0.028)	0.032 (0.024)
Family financial support	–0.021 (0.041)	0.000 (0.034)	–0.002 (0.064)	0.032 (0.029)	0.015 (0.045)
Household income
Less than $25,000	–	–	–	–	–
$25,000–$49,999	–0.023 (0.043)	–0.043 (0.039)	–0.090 (0.072)	0.076 (0.032)**	–0.010 (0.053)
$50,000–$74,999	–0.013 (0.063)	–0.096 (0.046)**	0.126 (0.103)	0.060 (0.044)	0.031 (0.071)
$75,000+	0.067 (0.076)	–0.070 (0.049)	0.145 (0.127)	0.170 (0.058)***	0.110 (0.062)*
Constant	0.609 (0.111)***	0.420 (0.121)***	0.921 (0.186)***	0.804 (0.069)***	0.726 (0.224)***
R–squared	0.0623	0.1041	0.0932	0.0609	0.0656

[i] Note: Dependent variable is the likelihood of survey response. Reported are estimated parameters with robust standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table A5

Regression results, treatment likelihood, survey respondents

	Project GATE			GATE II
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia
Male	0.015 (0.050)	0.049 (0.041)	−0.134 (0.085)	−0.061 (0.035)*	0.093 (0.062)
White	0.052 (0.061)	0.039 (0.051)	−0.028 (0.141)	0.031 (0.037)	−0.031 (0.058)
Married	0.005 (0.061)	0.016 (0.054)	0.074 (0.100)	0.016 (0.041)	0.032 (0.070)
Disabled	0.053 (0.097)	−0.001 (0.044)	0.009 (0.126)	−0.111 (0.071)	−0.083 (0.153)
Age: 18–25 years	−0.179 (0.151)	0.168 (0.161)	0.310 (0.301)	0.075 (0.129)	–
Age: 25–34 years	0.001 (0.069)	−0.035 (0.062)	0.122 (0.125)	−0.035 (0.055)	–
Age: 35–44 years	–	–	–	–	–
Age: 45–54 years	0.066 (0.060)	−0.067 (0.048)	0.026 (0.095)	−0.008 (0.045)	–
Age: 55+ years	−0.043 (0.084)	−0.106 (0.067)	−0.103 (0.134)	0.033 (0.048)	−0.016 (0.056)
No high school diploma	–	–	–	–	–
High school diploma	−0.196 (0.126)	0.173 (0.163)	−0.139 (0.177)	−0.005 (0.068)	−0.319 (0.311)
Some college	−0.172 (0.124)	0.192 (0.159)	−0.126 (0.178)	0.003 (0.070)	−0.092 (0.299)
College degree	−0.175 (0.135)	0.140 (0.163)	−0.060 (0.193)	0.014 (0.072)	−0.127 (0.295)
Self-employment experience	−0.085 (0.058)	−0.002 (0.045)	−0.018 (0.087)	−0.007 (0.038)	.076 (0.057)
Family business	0.069 (0.051)	0.028 (0.048)	−0.067 (0.098)	0.001 (0.034)	–
Relevant work experience	−0.069 (0.059)	0.058 (0.052)	0.156 (0.111)	0.042 (0.036)	0.123 (0.090)
Business plan	0.021 (0.059)	−0.068 (0.052)	0.154 (0.111)	0.047 (0.051)	−0.141 (0.129)
Bad/no credit history	−0.080 (0.053)	0.057 (0.046)	0.171 (0.098)	−0.019 (0.041)	0.034 (0.072)
Family financial support	0.055 (0.055)	0.038 (0.049)	−0.021 (0.091)	036 (0.037)	0.041 (0.063)
Household income
Less than $25,000	–	–	–	–	–
$25,000–$49,999	−0.027 (0.059)	0.092 (0.057)*	−0.069 (0.101)	0.017 (0.041)	−0.055 (0.074)
$50,000–$74,999	−0.102 (0.083)	0.109 (0.068)	−0.046 (0.141)	−0.058 (0.057)	−0.133 (0.099)
$75,000+	−0.152 (0.098)	0.098 (0.070)	0.042 (0.173)	0.059 (0.067)	−0.068 (0.085)
Constant	0.786 (0.147)**	0.123 (0.193)	0.293 (0.254)	0.264 (0.080)***	0.223 (0.313)
R-squared	0.0621	0.0502	0.1366	0.0242	0.0426

[i] Note: Dependent variable is the likelihood of treatment among survey respondents. Reported are estimated parameters with robust standard errors in parentheses.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table A6

Characteristics of survey respondents

	Project GATE			GATE II
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia
Survey respondents	467	675	176	825	336
Male	0.533	0.610	0.602	0.525	0.479
Female	0.467	0.390	0.398	0.475	0.521
White	0.437	0.804	0.091	0.608	0.512
Nonwhite	0.563	0.196	0.909	0.392	0.488
Married	0.356	0.547	0.460	0.535	0.476
Disabled	0.066	0.074	0.119	0.065	0.036
18–25 years old	0.028	0.016	0.017	0.022	–
25–34 years old	0.197	0.142	0.148	0.141	–
35–44 years old	0.293	0.326	0.324	0.250	–
45–54 years old	0.362	0.375	0.381	0.322	0.503
55+ years old	0.120	0.141	0.131	0.265	0.497
No high school diploma	0.041	0.016	0.063	0.072	0.010
High school diploma	0.276	0.164	0.284	0.377	0.083
Some college	0.370	0.333	0.318	0.267	0.283
College degree	0.313	0.486	0.335	0.284	0.625
Self-employment experience	0.238	0.270	0.318	0.322	0.435
Family business	0.668	0.787	0.756	0.481	–
Relevant work experience	0.792	0.827	0.807	0.388	0.893
Business plan	0.214	0.169	0.176	0.127	0.051
Bad/no credit history	0.548	0.292	0.386	0.512	0.199
Family financial support	0.409	0.495	0.489	0.538	0.554
Household income
Less than $25,000	0.411	0.215	0.364	0.449	0.310
$25,000–$49,999	0.347	0.323	0.381	0.326	0.289
$50,000–$74,999	0.137	0.216	0.165	0.136	0.137
$75,000+	0.105	0.246	0.091	0.090	0.265

[i] Note: Reported are sample proportions.

Table A7

Number of completed counseling sessions and workshops

	Number of counseling sessions	Number of workshops
Project GATE
Pennsylvania
Treatment	1.2 (2.0)	4.8 (5.6)
Control	.3 (1.0)	1.1 (2.7)
Minnesota
Treatment	1.5 (2.1)	4.9 (5.0)
Control	.6 (2.1)	1.9 (3.5)
Maine
Treatment	1.4 (1.7)	2.9 (4.4)
Control	1.0 (1.7)	2.5 (4.1)

GATE II
North Carolina
Treatment	2.1 (3.3)	3.5 (4.8)
Control	.5 (1.7)	1.8 (3.8)
Virginia
Treatment	3.0 (1.3)	5.4 (5.6)
Control	0.4 (1.3)	2.0 (3.8)

[i] Note: Reported are sample means with standard deviations in parentheses.

Table A8

Distribution of counseling sessions and workshops, Project GATE

	Pennsylvania		Minnesota		Maine
	Treatment	Control	Treatment	Control	Treatment	Control
Number of individuals	241	226	356	319	79	97
Counseling sessions
0 sessions	0.578	0.898	0.388	0.793	0.367	0.577
1–2 sessions	0.220	0.053	0.419	0.116	0.443	0.268
3+ sessions	0.203	0.049	0.194	0.091	0.190	0.155

Workshops
0 workshops	0.324	0.708	0.287	0.599	0.443	0.546
1–3 workshops	0.220	0.186	0.216	0.241	0.317	0.237
4+ workshops	0.456	0.106	0.497	0.160	0.241	0.217

Counseling, Workshops
No sessions, no workshops	0.241	0.673	0.126	0.533	0.152	0.412
No sessions, 1–3 workshops	0.137	0.155	0.081	0.172	0.152	0.082
No sessions, 4+ workshops	0.199	0.071	0.180	0.088	0.063	0.082
1–2 sessions, no workshops	0.062	0.013	0.112	0.044	0.241	0.082
1–2 sessions 1–3 workshops	0.066	0.022	0.104	0.047	0.101	0.082
1–2 sessions 4+ workshops	0.091	0.018	0.202	0.025	0.101	0.103
3+ sessions, no workshops	0.021	0.022	0.048	0.022	0.051	0.052
3+ sessions, 1–3 workshops	0.017	0.009	0.031	0.022	0.063	0.072
3+ sessions, 4+ workshops	0.166	0.018	0.115	0.047	0.076	0.031

[i] Note: Reported are sample proportions.

Table A9

Distribution of counseling sessions and workshops, GATE II

	North Carolina		Virginia
	Treatment	Control	Treatment	Control
Number of individuals	629	196	178	158
Counseling sessions
0 sessions	0.569	0.852	0.354	0.886
1–2 sessions	0.129	0.066	0.185	0.076
3+ sessions	0.302	0.082	0.461	0.038

Workshops
0 workshops	0.461	0.638	0.320	0.627
1–3 workshops	0.191	0.219	0.174	0.196
4+ workshops	0.348	0.143	0.506	0.177

Counseling, Workshops
No sessions, no workshops	0.355	0.592	0.219	0.589
No sessions, 1–3 workshops	0.045	0.020	0.039	0.019
No sessions, 4+ workshops	0.062	0.026	0.062	0.019
1–2 sessions, no workshops	0.094	0.168	0.045	0.177
1–2 sessions 1–3 workshops	0.038	0.031	0.062	0.019
1–2 sessions 4+ workshops	0.059	0.020	0.067	0.000
3+ sessions, no workshops	0.121	0.092	0.090	0.120
3+ sessions, 1–3 workshops	0.046	0.015	0.084	0.038
3+ sessions, 4+ workshops	0.181	0.036	0.331	0.019

[i] Note: Reported are sample proportions.

Table A10

Intent-to-Treat (ITT) effects on employment and earnings

	Project GATE			GATE II
	Pennsylvania	Minnesota	Maine	North Carolina	Virginia
Self-employment
in own business	0.028 (0.037)	0.102 (0.035)***	0.071 (0.069)	0.040 (0.030)	0.008 (0.037)
as contractor	0.046 (0.027)*	−0.026 (0.027)	−0.108 (0.053)**	0.026 (0.026)	0.036 (0.041)
any self-employment	0.073 (0.042)*	0.077 (0.038)**	−0.038 (0.077)	0.066 (0.036)*	0.044 (0.048)
Regular employment	−0.040 (0.047)	−0.050 (0.038)	0.134 (0.081)*	−0.055 (0.040)	−0.062 (0.055)
Any employment Self-employment earnings	0.033 (0.040) 4 (49)	0.027 (0.030) 47 (99)	0.096 (0.068) 252 (171)	0.011 (0.037) 62 (55)	−0.018 (0.047) -94 (69)
Regular earnings	98 (223)	-314 (311)	852 (404)**	37 (124)	-666 (504)
Total earnings	102 (224)	-268 (311)	1,112 (402)***	99 (132)	-760 (508)
Has employees	−0.002 (0.023)	−0.004 (0.021)	0.116 (0.050)**	0.013 (0.014)	−0.009 (0.016)
Number of employees	0.03 (0.09)	0.08 (0.10)	0.21 (0.21)	0.10 (0.08)	−0.025 (0.028)

[i] Note: Reported are estimated ITT effects with robust standard errors in parentheses.

***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10.

Table A11

Correlations of key characteristics, treatment cases

Project GATE	Self-employment experience	Good credit	College degree	45+ years old
Pennsylvania
Good credit	−0.0201	–	–	–
College degree	0.0173	0.1238	–	–
45+ years old	0.2167	0.2365	0.0476	–
Minnesota
Good credit	−0.0483	–	–	–
College degree	−0.0077	0.0916	–	–
45+ years old	0.1942	0.0124	−0.0023	–
Maine
Good credit	0.0042	–	–	–
College degree	0.0711	0.0261	–	–
45+ years old	0.2518	0.3044	0.1541	–

GATE II	Self-employment experience	Good Credit	College Degree	45+ years old

North Carolina
Good credit	0.0119	–	–	–
College degree	0.0379	0.1794	–	–
45+ years old	0.1440	0.1524	0.0360	–
Virginia
Good credit	−0.0328	–	–	–
College degree	0.0521	0.0355	–	–