First stage regression of IV model
| (1) | (2) | |
|---|---|---|
| Variables | Log of Income | Log of Remittance |
| Parental Education | 0.01*** (0.00) | |
| Conflict amongst castes | 0.12*** (0.03) | |
| Highest education male | 0.05*** (0.00) | −0.12*** (0.01) |
| Highest education female | 0.03*** (0.00) | 0.10*** (0.02) |
| Land ownership | 0.03 (0.02) | 0.04 (0.06) |
| Urban/rural | 0.67*** (0.05) | 1.03*** (0.21) |
| No of household members aged 0–14 | 0.06*** (0.01) | −0.60*** (0.09) |
| No of household members aged 15–19 | −0.09*** (0.01) | −0.38*** (0.05) |
| No of household members aged more than 19 | 0.30*** (0.01) | −0.23*** (0.04) |
| Caste | ||
| Brahmin | −0.05 (0.05) | −0.42** (0.17) |
| Upper Caste | −0.01 (0.03) | −0.22** (0.11) |
| Other backward classes | −0.03 (0.03) | −0.15 (0.10) |
| Scheduled tribe | 0.05 (0.05) | −0.16 (0.15) |
| Dalits | - | - |
| mills | - | 0.10 (0.15) |
| Constant | 9.19*** (0.04) | 2.36*** (0.14) |
| Number of observations | 71,777 | 73,968 |
| R-squared | 0.18 | 0.05 |
| F-test | 549.05 | 123.29 |
IV estimate of the impact of remittances on expenditure on food_
| Variables | (1) | (2) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Food expenditure | Cereal | Non-cereal | Pulses | Meat and eggs | Vegetable and fruits | Non-cereal to cereal | |
| Log of remittance | 0.67*** (0.05) | −0.26*** (0.06) | 0.95*** (0.06) | 1.02*** (0.11) | 2.03*** (0.20) | 1.05*** (0.13) | 5.88*** (0.48) |
| Log of Income | 0.42*** (0.09) | 0.19 (0.13) | 0.47*** (0.12) | −0.57*** (0.21) | −0.34 (0.37) | −0.29 (0.24) | 1.19 (1.01) |
| Highest education male | 0.07*** (0.01) | −0.03*** (0.01) | 0.10*** (0.01) | 0.16*** (0.02) | 0.26*** (0.03) | 0.15*** (0.02) | 0.62*** (0.07) |
| Highest education female | −0.06*** (0.01) | 0.02*** (0.01) | −0.08*** (0.01) | −0.05*** (0.01) | −0.16*** (0.02) | −0.05*** (0.01) | −0.51*** (0.06) |
| Land ownership | 0.03*** (0.01) | 0.09*** (0.01) | 0.02** (0.01) | 0.02 (0.03) | −0.05 (0.04) | 0.12*** (0.03) | −0.41*** (0.12) |
| Urban/rural | −0.68*** (0.08) | −0.03 (0.11) | −0.87*** (0.10) | 0.04 (0.19) | −1.24*** (0.32) | 0.04 (0.21) | −3.73*** (0.87) |
| HH members aged 0–14 | 0.31*** (0.02) | 0.05* (0.03) | 0.38*** (0.02) | 0.29*** (0.04) | 0.65*** (0.08) | 0.27*** (0.05) | 1.67*** (0.19) |
| HH members aged 15–19 | 0.44*** (0.03) | 0.02 (0.04) | 0.56*** (0.03) | 0.66*** (0.06) | 1.20*** (0.11) | 0.65*** (0.07) | 2.68*** (0.27) |
| HH members aged>19 | 0.16*** (0.03) | 0.03 (0.04) | 0.21*** (0.04) | 0.56*** (0.07) | 0.72*** (0.12) | 0.54*** (0.08) | 0.89*** (0.32) |
| Caste | |||||||
| Brahmin | 0.18*** (0.03) | −0.09** (0.04) | 0.26*** (0.04) | 0.24*** (0.07) | −0.49*** (0.14) | 0.27*** (0.08) | 2.11*** (0.35) |
| Forward Caste | 0.12*** (0.02) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.15*** (0.02) | 0.18*** (0.04) | −0.09 (0.08) | 0.17*** (0.05) | 0.84*** (0.26) |
| Other backward classes | 0.07*** (0.02) | −0.04** (0.02) | 0.10*** (0.02) | 0.04 (0.04) | −0.10 (0.07) | 0.06 (0.05) | 0.77*** (0.25) |
| Scheduled tribe | 0.09*** (0.03) | −0.05 (0.03) | 0.13*** (0.03) | 0.13* (0.07) | 0.33*** (0.11) | 0.13* (0.08) | 0.62 (0.69) |
| Dalits (reference group) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Constant | 1.69* (0.87) | 4.77*** (1.20) | 0.12 (1.08) | 6.53*** (1.99) | 1.10 (3.47) | 4.58** (2.20) | −21.93** (9.41) |
| R-squared | 0.15 | 0.09 | 0.13 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.02 |
| Number of observations | 73,554 | 73,554 | 73,554 | 73,554 | 73,554 | 73,432 | 73,271 |
IV estimate of the impact of remittances on food diversity
| Variables | HDDS (1) | Simpson Index (2) | Shannon Index (3) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Log of remittance | 0.473** (0.02) | 0.045*** (0.006) | 0.312*** (0.026) |
| Log of Income | 0.063 (0.04) | 0.017* (0.010) | 0.084* (0.046) |
| Highest education male | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.005*** (0.001) | 0.035*** (0.004) |
| Highest education female | −0.01** (0.00) | −0.004*** (0.001) | −0.027*** (0.003) |
| Land ownership | 0.02*** (0.00) | −0.002* (0.001) | −0.012** (0.006) |
| Urban/rural | −0.09*** (0.04) | −0.047*** (0.009) | −0.288*** (0.040) |
| Household members aged 0–14 | 0.03*** (0.01) | 0.013*** (0.002) | 0.102*** (0.010) |
| Household members aged 15–19 | 0.03** (0.01) | 0.023*** (0.004) | 0.166*** (0.015) |
| Household members aged more than 19 | −0.00 (0.01) | 0.007** (0.003) | 0.059*** (0.015) |
| Caste | |||
| Brahmin | −0.02* (0.01) | 0.013*** (0.003) | 0.071*** (0.015) |
| Forward Caste | −0.01 (0.01) | 0.006*** (0.002) | 0.038*** (0.010) |
| Other backward classes | −0.02*** (0.01) | 0.003 (0.002) | 0.013 (0.009) |
| Scheduled tribe | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.003 (0.004) | 0.021 (0.015) |
| Dalits (reference group) | - | - | - |
| 0.568*** (0.095) | 0.559 (0.423) | ||
| R-Squared | 0.015 | 0.034 | |
| Number of observations | 61,976 | 73,554 | 73,554 |
The impact of receiving remittances on food consumption and diversity using propensity score matching (average treatment effect on the treated estimator)_
| 2012 | 2005 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | Food exp | HDDS | Shannon | Simpson | Food exp | HDDS | Shannon | Simpson |
| Remittances (1 vs 0) | 0.084*** (0.15) | 0.193*** (0.036) | 0.010 (0.006) | −0.001 (0.001) | 0.068*** (0.019) | 0.234*** (0.054) | 0.001 (0.010) | 0.001 (0.02) |
| Observations | 31,671 | 40,499 | ||||||
Fixed effect logit model
| (1) | |
|---|---|
| Variables | Remit (1/0) |
| Dependency ratio | −0.21*** (0.08) |
| Highest education male | −0.11*** (0.01) |
| Highest education female | 0.13*** (0.01) |
| Land ownership | 0.03 (0.08) |
| Urban/rural | 1.26*** (0.24) |
| No. of household members aged 0–14 | −0.71*** (0.03) |
| No. of household members aged 15–19 | −0.34*** (0.04) |
| No. of household members aged more than 19 | −0.30*** (0.04) |
| Conflict among castes | 0.11** (0.05) |
| Brahmin | −0.87*** (0.25) |
| Upper Caste | −0.46*** (0.17) |
| Other backward classes | −0.34** (0.16) |
| Scheduled tribe | −0.31 (0.24) |
| Dalits | - |
| Number of observations | 9330 |
Fixed effect model without IV
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | Log of food expenditure | HDDS | Simpson Index | Shannon Index |
| Log of remittance | 0.01*** (0.00) | −0.002** (0.001) | 0.00*** (0.00) | 0.01*** (0.00) |
| Log of income | 0.15*** (0.00) | 0.004* (0.002) | 0.01*** (0.00) | 0.05*** (0.00) |
| Highest education male | 0.01*** (0.00) | 0.002*** (0.001) | 0.00*** (0.00) | 0.00*** (0.00) |
| Highest education female | 0.01*** (0.00) | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.00*** (0.00) | 0.00*** (0.00) |
| Land ownership | 0.06*** (0.01) | 0.019** (0.008) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.01) |
| Urban/rural | 0.10*** (0.02) | −0.004 (0.021) | −0.00 (0.00) | 0.02 (0.01) |
| No. of household members aged 0–14 | 0.06*** (0.00) | 0.007*** (0.002) | −0.00*** (0.00) | −0.01*** (0.00) |
| No. of household members aged 15–19 | 0.09*** (0.00) | 0.008*** (0.003) | −0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) |
| No. of household members aged more than 19 | 0.10*** (0.00) | 0.005* (0.003) | 0.00* (0.00) | 0.01*** (0.00) |
| Caste | ||||
| Brahmin | −0.06** (0.02) | −0.041** (0.020) | −0.00 (0.00) | −0.04*** (0.01) |
| Upper Caste | −0.00 (0.02) | −0.016 (0.013) | −0.00 (0.00) | −0.02** (0.01) |
| Other backward classes | −0.02 (0.01) | −0.031** (0.012) | −0.00* (0.00) | −0.03*** (0.01) |
| Scheduled tribe | 0.01 (0.02) | 0.004 (0.020) | −0.00 (0.00) | −0.02 (0.01) |
| Dalits | - | - | - | |
| Constant | 5.76*** (0.03) | 0.77*** (0.00) | 1.66*** (0.02) | |
| Number of observations | 72,170 | 59,584 | 72,170 | 72,170 |
| R-squared | 0.22 | 0.03 | 0.06 | |
Summary statistics
| 2005 | 2011–12 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Without remittance | With remittances | Without remittance | With remittances | |
| Household monthly food expenditure (in Rs) | 3,296.266 (2,087.07) | 3,212.52 (2,037.30) | 4,179.17 (2,455.38) | 3,816.94 (2,430.49) |
| HDDS | 7.25 (1.67) | 7.45 (1.68) | 7.25 (1.66) | 7.24 (1.56) |
| Simpson Index | 0.84 (0.07) | 0.84 (0.07) | 0.85 (0.05) | 0.85 (0.05) |
| Shannon Index | 2.15 (0.31) | 2.15 (0.30) | 2.26 (0.25) | 2.24 (0.24) |
| Household total yearly income (in Rs) | 88,073.55 (137,881.26) | 59065.04 (121,007.67) | 139,220.79 (231,057.50) | 93116.06 (234,939.80) |
| Household total yearly consumption (in Rs) | 94,157.97 (178380) | 109,348.62 (233,595.6) | 127,006.89 (127,645.98) | 119,839.74 (133,926.63) |
| Amount of remittances (in Rs) | 0.00 (0.00) | 33,561.81 (29,429.99) | 0.00 (0.00) | 48,323.84 (70,908.84) |
| Meat and eggs expenditure | 232.632 (377.197) | 218.124 (306.859) | 376.186 (504.388) | 310.572 (464.956) |
| Vegetables and fruits expenditure | 417.841 (409.864) | 395.517 (376.679) | 684.783 (542.362) | 610.678 (499.544) |
| Pulses expenditure | 164.777 (172.757) | 169.184 (184.273) | 226.766 (186.105) | 211.504 (168.845) |
| Cereal and cereal products | 915.572 (577.961) | 914.537 (614.485) | 872.316 (554.982) | 812.736 (586.939) |
| Non-cereal total expenditure | 2380.694 (1769.853) | 2298.089 (1700.029) | 3306.857 (2167.823) | 3004.212 (2097.036) |
| Households living in villages experiencing conflict amongst caste Conflict amongst caste is a dummy variable where 0 means various castes get along well and 1 means there is somewhat or a lot of conflict among castes. | 28 (45) | 30 (45) | 40 (49) | 40 (49) |
| Household size | 5.21 (2.47) | 4.72 (2.67) | 5.07 (2.33) | 4.58 (2.75) |
| No of household members aged 0–14 | 1.65 (1.56) | 1.51 (1.68) | 1.32 (1.41) | 1.28 (1.60) |
| No of household members aged 15–19 | 0.74 (0.97) | 0.67 (0.89) | 0.63 (0.86) | 0.55 (0.81) |
| No of household members aged more than 19 | 2.80 (1.37) | 2.53 (1.42) | 3.11 (1.44) | 2.74 (1.48) |
| Dependency ratio (in %) | 55 (59) | 59 (84) | 41 (50) | 43 (65) |
| Highest male education (in years) | 6.93 (5.14) | 5.41 (5.49) | 7.89 (5.19) | 5.67 (5.58) |
| Highest female education (in years) | 4.61 (5.04) | 4.89 (5.17) | 5.93 (5.36) | 5.29 (5.39) |
| Household owning land (in %) | 41 (49) | 53 (49) | 40 (49) | 55 (49) |
| Household residing in urban area (in %) | 36 (48) | 25 (43) | 39 (49) | 25 (43) |
| Number of rooms in the dwelling | 2.51 (1.61) | 3.06 (1.98) | 2.83 (1.69) | 3.21 (1.92) |
| Caste | ||||
| Brahmin (in %) | 0.05 (0.23) | 0.07 (0.25) | 0.05 (0.22) | 0.07 (0.25) |
| Forward castes (in %) | 0.26 (0.44) | 0.28 (0.45) | 0.26 (0.43) | 0.25 (0.43) |
| Other backward classes (in %) | 0.38 (0.48) | 0.42 (0.49) | 0.38 (0.48) | 0.43 (0.49) |
| Dalit (in %) | 0.20 (0.40) | 0.17 (0.38) | 0.20 (0.40) | 0.18 (0.38) |
| Scheduled tribes (in %) | 0.08 (0.27) | 0.04 (0.20) | 0.09 (0.28) | 0.06 (24) |
| Number of observations | 39,474 | 2,056 | 27,990 | 4,531 |