Robustness tests: allowing for non-linear effects
| M9 | M10 | M11 | M12 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.765*** (0.034) | 0.435*** (0.074) | 0.778*** (0.034) | 0.412*** (0.071) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.197*** (0.048) | 0.357*** (0.082) | 0.070*** (0.016) | 0.085** (0.043) |
| Women’s economic rights sq. | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.003*** (0.001) | ||
| Per capita income | 0.079 (0.049) | −0.529 (0.565) | 0.270** (0.112) | 0.326 (0.862) |
| Per capita income squared | −0.005** (0.002) | −0.021 (0.016) | ||
| Growth in per capita income | 0.051 (0.033) | 0.021 (0.031) | 0.055 (0.036) | 0.012 (0.034) |
| Democracy (polity2) | 0.016 (0.054) | 0.114 (0.229) | 0.010 (0.055) | 0.076 (0.201) |
| Major political violence dummy | −0.641 (1.139) | −1.657 (3.697) | −0.377 (1.061) | −0.555 (3.740) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 1.635*** (0.606) | 1.762*** (0.596) | ||
| Visa requirement dummy | 0.991* (0.591) | 1.372** (0.661) | ||
| Country effects | Random | Fixed | Random | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 825 | 825 | 825 | 825 |
| Number of countries | 112 | 112 | 112 | 112 |
| R2 | 0.842 | 0.839 | ||
| Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | 1.334 (0.1822) | 1.387 (0.166) |
Robustness tests: economic versus political rights
| M5 Civil society participation | M6 Civil society participation | M7 Political participation | M8 Political participation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Women’s political rights | 2.668 (2.117) | 6.747 (6.207) | 1.834 (1.883) | −0.025 (5.835) |
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.778*** (0.032) | 0.426*** (0.077) | 0.778*** (0.033) | 0.435*** (0.075) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.073*** (0.017) | 0.083* (0.045) | 0.076*** (0.016) | 0.089** (0.044) |
| Per capita income | 0.064 (0.049) | −0.482 (0.589) | 0.073 (0.049) | −0.410 (0.556) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.055 (0.034) | 0.021 (0.033) | 0.050 (0.033) | 0.022 (0.032) |
| Democracy (polity2) | −0.030 (0.056) | 0.046 (0.229) | 0.002 (0.053) | 0.121 (0.224) |
| Major political violence dummy | −0.280 (1.088) | −1.172 (3.817) | −0.390 (1.137) | −1.319 (3.776) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 1.677*** (0.544) | 1.575*** (0.566) | ||
| Visa requirement dummy | 1.115* (0.610) | 1.301** (0.607) | ||
| Country effects | Random | Fixed | Random | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 824 | 824 | 824 | 824 |
| Number of countries | 111 | 111 | 111 | 111 |
| R2 | 0.840 | 0.839 | ||
| Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | 1.486 (0.137) | 1.429 (0.153) |
Women’s economic rights and the female share of migrants from developing coming to Germany
| M1 | M2 | |
|---|---|---|
| (Women's share of migrants)t−1 | 0.771*** (0.034) | 0.433*** (0.075) |
| Women's economic rights | 0.079*** (0.016) | 0.089** (0.045) |
| Per capita income | 0.074 (0.048) | −0.414 (0.554) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.053 (0.034) | 0.021 (0.032) |
| Democracy (polity2) | 0.017 (0.054) | 0.105 (0.216) |
| Major political violence dummy variable | −0.525 (1.105) | −1.397 (3.768) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 1.687*** (0.588) | |
| Visa requirement dummy variable | 1.237** (0.618) | |
| Country effects | Random | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 825 | 825 |
| Number of countries | 112 | 112 |
| R2 | 0.839 | |
| Zero autocorrelation in first-differenced Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | 1.433 (0.152) |
j_izajodm-2021-0013_tabapp_001
| #Migrants | %Women | |
|---|---|---|
| Mali | 5,409 | 7.19 |
| Gambia | 18,747 | 8.01 |
| Guinea-Bissau | 2,568 | 10.51 |
| Niger | 1,419 | 12.12 |
| Algeria | 31,840 | 12.50 |
| Chad | 1,044 | 12.74 |
| Sudan | 7,998 | 14.08 |
| Guinea | 16,317 | 14.17 |
| Mauritania | 1,101 | 15.44 |
| Senegal | 7,204 | 16.21 |
| Liberia | 1,096 | 16.51 |
| Bangladesh | 16,187 | 17.61 |
| Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) | 2,471 | 17.77 |
| Benin | 2,782 | 19.55 |
| Pakistan | 81,191 | 19.73 |
| Sierra Leone | 3,751 | 22.18 |
| Côte D’Ivoire | 6,679 | 24.82 |
| Eritrea | 66,847 | 26.67 |
| Tunisia | 31,364 | 28.68 |
| Egypt | 34,608 | 29.44 |
| Afghanistan | 258,268 | 29.61 |
| Libya | 23,799 | 30.00 |
| India | 167,675 | 32.68 |
| Lebanon | 24,276 | 33.01 |
| Morocco | 62,907 | 33.26 |
| Yemen | 6,304 | 34.57 |
| Tajikistan | 6,535 | 34.80 |
| Ghana | 25,805 | 35.03 |
| Syria | 696,516 | 37.14 |
| Iraq | 232,365 | 38.16 |
| Albania | 125,266 | 38.51 |
| Ethiopia | 15,830 | 38.75 |
| Nigeria | 52,282 | 38.80 |
| Iran | 98,936 | 38.80 |
| Congo | 1,201 | 39.80 |
| Turkey (Ottoman Empire) | 230,513 | 39.87 |
| Togo | 5,117 | 40.18 |
| Jordan | 11,184 | 40.29 |
| Jamaica | 1,005 | 41.00 |
| Georgia | 37,604 | 41.20 |
| Serbia | 98,872 | 41.61 |
| Myanmar (Burma) | 1,503 | 41.78 |
| Cameroon | 20,560 | 42.31 |
| Tanzania | 2,081 | 42.62 |
| Sri Lanka | 10,629 | 42.72 |
| Congo, Dem. Rep. | 3,459 | 43.60 |
| Azerbaijan | 20,097 | 43.96 |
| Rwanda | 1,035 | 44.73 |
| Angola | 3,295 | 44.80 |
| Malaysia | 6,382 | 45.03 |
| North Macedonia | 99,909 | 45.27 |
| Guatemala | 1,134 | 46.47 |
| Argentina | 8,322 | 46.97 |
| Mexico | 32,026 | 47.13 |
| Nepal | 8,638 | 48.67 |
| Uzbekistan | 5,377 | 49.01 |
| Costa Rica | 2,182 | 49.36 |
| Vietnam | 47,945 | 49.49 |
| Moldova | 19,666 | 50.34 |
| Uganda | 2,226 | 50.36 |
| Armenia | 23,275 | 50.46 |
| South Africa | 7,022 | 50.66 |
| China | 177,068 | 50.77 |
| Ecuador | 6,135 | 52.09 |
| Indonesia | 20,770 | 52.97 |
| El Salvador | 1,278 | 52.97 |
| Venezuela | 6,209 | 53.81 |
| Cuba | 6,174 | 54.08 |
| Singapore | 4,012 | 54.29 |
| Brazil | 62,703 | 54.44 |
| Honduras | 1,226 | 54.65 |
| Turkmenistan | 2,439 | 55.35 |
| Colombia | 21,714 | 56.33 |
| Bolivia | 2,527 | 56.95 |
| Paraguay | 1,737 | 58.09 |
| Peru | 7,980 | 60.11 |
| Zimbabwe | 2,287 | 60.25 |
| Russia | 167,153 | 60.35 |
| Mongolia | 6,154 | 60.61 |
| Kazakhstan | 16,423 | 60.66 |
| Ukraine | 86,397 | 60.80 |
| Dominican Republic | 5,212 | 62.28 |
| Belarus | 14,306 | 63.88 |
| Kyrgyz Republic | 5,508 | 63.98 |
| Philippines | 18,539 | 66.61 |
| Kenya | 9,281 | 68.24 |
| Thailand | 27,462 | 76.21 |
| Madagascar | 2,407 | 81.14 |
j_izajodm-2021-0013_tabapp_003
| Variable | Obs | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Share of women among migrant pop. | 825 | 44.70 | 15.74 | 3.91 | 84.55 |
| (Share of women among migrant pop.)t−1 | 825 | 45.17 | 15.63 | 3.91 | 84.55 |
| Women’s economic rights (OECD) | 825 | 50.68 | 21.40 | 1.07 | 94.83 |
| Per capita income | 825 | 3.97 | 6.59 | −62.08 | 123.14 |
| Growth in per capita income | 825 | 3.12 | 5.53 | −9 | 10 |
| Democracy (polity2) | 825 | 0.12 | 0.33 | 0 | 1 |
| Major political violence dummy variable | 825 | 58.76 | 15.85 | 16.16 | 93.09 |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 825 | 8.63 | 0.56 | 7.06 | 9.69 |
| Visa requirement dummy variable | 825 | 0.84 | 0.37 | 0 | 1 |
| Women’s economic rights (World Bank) | 1,066 | 67.02 | 16.59 | 23.13 | 96.88 |
| Women’s civil society participation | 824 | 0.71 | 0.16 | 0.06 | 0.95 |
| Women’s political participation | 824 | 0.87 | 0.16 | 0.23 | 1 |
Robustness tests: employing an alternative measure of women’s rights
| M3 World Bank measure | M4 World Bank measure | |
|---|---|---|
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.835*** (0.033) | 0.705*** (0.049) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.064*** (0.021) | 0.057** (0.023) |
| Per capita income | 0.073*** (0.022) | 0.040 (0.025) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.034 (0.025) | 0.023 (0.022) |
| Democracy (polity2) | −0.013 (0.050) | 0.024 (0.059) |
| Major political violence dummy variable | −0.324 (0.924) | −0.731 (1.176) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 1.549*** (0.449) | 3.918** (1.748) |
| Visa requirement dummy variable | 0.861* (0.508) | 3.226*** (0.807) |
| Country/subregional effects | Random | Subregional fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 1,066 | 1,066 |
| Number of countries | 122 | 122 |
| R2 | 0.788 | 0.806 |
j_izajodm-2021-0013_tabapp_002
| Going places |
| Can a woman apply for a passport in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally travel outside the country in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally travel outside her home in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally choose where to live in the same way as a man? |
| Starting a job |
| Can a woman get a job or pursue a trade or profession in the same way as a man? |
| Does the law mandate non-discrimination based on gender in employment? |
| Is there legislation on sexual harassment in employment? |
| Are there criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment? |
| Getting paid |
| Does the law mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value? |
| Can women work the same night hours as men? |
| Can women work in jobs deemed hazardous, arduous, or morally inappropriate in the same way as men? |
| Are women able to work in the same industries as men? |
| Getting married |
| Is a married woman not legally required to obey her husband? |
| Can a woman be head of household or head of the family in the same way as a man? |
| Is there domestic violence legislation? |
| Can a woman obtain a judgment of divorce in the same way as a man? |
| Do women have the same rights to remarry as men? |
| Having children |
| Is there paid leave of at least 14 weeks available to women? |
| Does the government pay 100% of maternity leave benefits, or parental leave benefits (where maternity leave is unavailable)? |
| Is there paid paternity leave? |
| Is there paid parental leave? |
| Is dismissal of pregnant workers prohibited? |
| Running a business |
| Can a woman legally sign a contract in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally register a business in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally open a bank account in the same way as a man? |
| Does the law prohibit discrimination by creditors based on sex or gender? |
| Managing assets |
| Do men and married women have equal ownership rights to property? |
| Do sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their parents? |
| Do female and male surviving spouses have equal rights to inherit assets? |
| Does the law grant spouses equal administrative authority over assets during the marriage? |
| Does the law provide for the valuation of nonmonetary contributions? |
| Getting a pension |
| Are the ages at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits equal? |
| Are the ages at which men and women can retire with partial pension benefits equal? |
| Is the mandatory retirement age for men and women equal? |
| Does the law establish explicit pension care credits for periods of childcare? |
Robustness tests: restrictions on the minimum size of migrant population
| Minimum number restriction | M13 >250 | M14 >250 | M15 >500 | M16 >500 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.934*** (0.014) | 0.753*** (0.104) | 0.938*** (0.015) | 0.675*** (0.095) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.052*** (0.011) | 0.077** (0.033) | 0.053*** (0.013) | 0.072** (0.031) |
| Per capita income | −0.001 (0.020) | 0.315 (0.422) | −0.026 (0.041) | 1.046** (0.463) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.034** (0.013) | 0.015 (0.031) | 0.030** (0.012) | −0.010 (0.026) |
| Democracy (polity2) | 0.003 (0.029) | 0.262 (0.169) | 0.005 (0.030) | 0.381** (0.172) |
| Major political violence dummy | 0.644 (0.486) | −2.308 (2.843) | 0.498 (0.511) | −0.584 (2.276) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 0.642*** (0.215) | 0.461* (0.254) | ||
| Visa requirement dummy | −0.066 (0.369) | −0.476 (0.607) | ||
| Country effects | Random | Fixed | Random | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 538 | 538 | 445 | 445 |
| Number of countries | 78 | 78 | 69 | 69 |
| R2 | 0.938 | 0.942 | ||
| Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | −0.984 (0.325) | −2.22 (0.026) |
Robustness tests: specifying explanatory variables as predetermined/endogenous and restricting maximum length of lags used as instruments
| Explanatory variables specified as: maximum lag length of explanatory variables as instruments: maximum lag length of dependent variable as instruments | M17 pred. | M18 end. | M19 pred. | M20 end. | M21 pred. | M22 end. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.463*** (0.058) | 0.477*** (0.058) | 0.484*** (0.068) | 0.519*** (0.067) | 0.508*** (0.067) | 0.541*** (0.065) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.106*** (0.033) | 0.121*** (0.035) | 0.130*** (0.042) | 0.159*** (0.042) | 0.118*** (0.043) | 0.144*** (0.042) |
| Per capita income | 0.176 (0.108) | 0.140 (0.090) | 0.125 (0.093) | 0.065 (0.081) | 0.125 (0.093) | 0.072 (0.081) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.021 (0.039) | 0.011 (0.036) | 0.019 (0.041) | 0.013 (0.047) | 0.020 (0.040) | 0.011 (0.046) |
| Democracy (polity2) | 0.252 (0.162) | 0.232 (0.176) | 0.214 (0.216) | 0.140 (0.233) | 0.243 (0.231) | 0.180 (0.250) |
| Major political violence dummy | −2.435 (3.285) | 0.352 (3.164) | −3.386 (3.186) | 1.050 (3.188) | −3.506 (3.133) | 0.752 (3.033) |
| Country effects | Fixed | Fixed | Fixed | Fixed | Fixed | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 825 | 825 | 825 | 825 | 825 | 825 |
| Number of countries | 112 | 112 | 112 | 112 | 112 | 112 |
| Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | −0.984 (0.325) | −0.984 (0.325) | −0.984 (0.325) | −0.984 (0.325) | −2.22 (0.026) | −2.22 (0.026) |