Table 1
Women’s economic rights and the female share of migrants from developing coming to Germany
| M1 | M2 | |
|---|---|---|
| (Women's share of migrants)t−1 | 0.771*** (0.034) | 0.433*** (0.075) |
| Women's economic rights | 0.079*** (0.016) | 0.089** (0.045) |
| Per capita income | 0.074 (0.048) | −0.414 (0.554) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.053 (0.034) | 0.021 (0.032) |
| Democracy (polity2) | 0.017 (0.054) | 0.105 (0.216) |
| Major political violence dummy variable | −0.525 (1.105) | −1.397 (3.768) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 1.687*** (0.588) | |
| Visa requirement dummy variable | 1.237** (0.618) | |
| Country effects | Random | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 825 | 825 |
| Number of countries | 112 | 112 |
| R2 | 0.839 | |
| Zero autocorrelation in first-differenced Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | 1.433 (0.152) |
Notes: Dependent variable is female share of migrants coming to Germany (in percent). Random country effects included in M1, fixed country effects in M2. Standard errors clustered on countries of origin in parentheses.
Table 2
Robustness tests: employing an alternative measure of women’s rights
| M3 World Bank measure | M4 World Bank measure | |
|---|---|---|
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.835*** (0.033) | 0.705*** (0.049) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.064*** (0.021) | 0.057** (0.023) |
| Per capita income | 0.073*** (0.022) | 0.040 (0.025) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.034 (0.025) | 0.023 (0.022) |
| Democracy (polity2) | −0.013 (0.050) | 0.024 (0.059) |
| Major political violence dummy variable | −0.324 (0.924) | −0.731 (1.176) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 1.549*** (0.449) | 3.918** (1.748) |
| Visa requirement dummy variable | 0.861* (0.508) | 3.226*** (0.807) |
| Country/subregional effects | Random | Subregional fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 1,066 | 1,066 |
| Number of countries | 122 | 122 |
| R2 | 0.788 | 0.806 |
Notes: Dependent variable is female share of migrants coming to Germany (in percent). Random country effects included in M3. Subregional fixed effects included in M4. Standard errors clustered on countries of origin in parentheses.
Table 3
Robustness tests: economic versus political rights
| M5 Civil society participation | M6 Civil society participation | M7 Political participation | M8 Political participation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Women’s political rights | 2.668 (2.117) | 6.747 (6.207) | 1.834 (1.883) | −0.025 (5.835) |
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.778*** (0.032) | 0.426*** (0.077) | 0.778*** (0.033) | 0.435*** (0.075) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.073*** (0.017) | 0.083* (0.045) | 0.076*** (0.016) | 0.089** (0.044) |
| Per capita income | 0.064 (0.049) | −0.482 (0.589) | 0.073 (0.049) | −0.410 (0.556) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.055 (0.034) | 0.021 (0.033) | 0.050 (0.033) | 0.022 (0.032) |
| Democracy (polity2) | −0.030 (0.056) | 0.046 (0.229) | 0.002 (0.053) | 0.121 (0.224) |
| Major political violence dummy | −0.280 (1.088) | −1.172 (3.817) | −0.390 (1.137) | −1.319 (3.776) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 1.677*** (0.544) | 1.575*** (0.566) | ||
| Visa requirement dummy | 1.115* (0.610) | 1.301** (0.607) | ||
| Country effects | Random | Fixed | Random | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 824 | 824 | 824 | 824 |
| Number of countries | 111 | 111 | 111 | 111 |
| R2 | 0.840 | 0.839 | ||
| Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | 1.486 (0.137) | 1.429 (0.153) |
Notes: Dependent variable is female share of migrants coming to Germany (in percent). Random country effects included in M5 and M7, fixed country effects in M6 and M8. Standard errors clustered on countries of origin in parentheses.
Table 4
Robustness tests: allowing for non-linear effects
| M9 | M10 | M11 | M12 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.765*** (0.034) | 0.435*** (0.074) | 0.778*** (0.034) | 0.412*** (0.071) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.197*** (0.048) | 0.357*** (0.082) | 0.070*** (0.016) | 0.085** (0.043) |
| Women’s economic rights sq. | −0.001*** (0.000) | −0.003*** (0.001) | ||
| Per capita income | 0.079 (0.049) | −0.529 (0.565) | 0.270** (0.112) | 0.326 (0.862) |
| Per capita income squared | −0.005** (0.002) | −0.021 (0.016) | ||
| Growth in per capita income | 0.051 (0.033) | 0.021 (0.031) | 0.055 (0.036) | 0.012 (0.034) |
| Democracy (polity2) | 0.016 (0.054) | 0.114 (0.229) | 0.010 (0.055) | 0.076 (0.201) |
| Major political violence dummy | −0.641 (1.139) | −1.657 (3.697) | −0.377 (1.061) | −0.555 (3.740) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 1.635*** (0.606) | 1.762*** (0.596) | ||
| Visa requirement dummy | 0.991* (0.591) | 1.372** (0.661) | ||
| Country effects | Random | Fixed | Random | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 825 | 825 | 825 | 825 |
| Number of countries | 112 | 112 | 112 | 112 |
| R2 | 0.842 | 0.839 | ||
| Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | 1.334 (0.1822) | 1.387 (0.166) |
Notes: Dependent variable is female share of migrants coming to Germany (in percent). Random country effects included in M9 and M11, fixed country effects in M10 and M12. Standard errors clustered on countries of origin in parentheses.
Table 5
Robustness tests: restrictions on the minimum size of migrant population
| Minimum number restriction | M13 >250 | M14 >250 | M15 >500 | M16 >500 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.934*** (0.014) | 0.753*** (0.104) | 0.938*** (0.015) | 0.675*** (0.095) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.052*** (0.011) | 0.077** (0.033) | 0.053*** (0.013) | 0.072** (0.031) |
| Per capita income | −0.001 (0.020) | 0.315 (0.422) | −0.026 (0.041) | 1.046** (0.463) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.034** (0.013) | 0.015 (0.031) | 0.030** (0.012) | −0.010 (0.026) |
| Democracy (polity2) | 0.003 (0.029) | 0.262 (0.169) | 0.005 (0.030) | 0.381** (0.172) |
| Major political violence dummy | 0.644 (0.486) | −2.308 (2.843) | 0.498 (0.511) | −0.584 (2.276) |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 0.642*** (0.215) | 0.461* (0.254) | ||
| Visa requirement dummy | −0.066 (0.369) | −0.476 (0.607) | ||
| Country effects | Random | Fixed | Random | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 538 | 538 | 445 | 445 |
| Number of countries | 78 | 78 | 69 | 69 |
| R2 | 0.938 | 0.942 | ||
| Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | −0.984 (0.325) | −2.22 (0.026) |
Notes: Dependent variable is female share of migrants coming to Germany (in percent). Random country effects included in M13 and M15, fixed country effects in M14 and M16. Standard errors clustered on countries of origin in parentheses.
Table 6
Robustness tests: specifying explanatory variables as predetermined/endogenous and restricting maximum length of lags used as instruments
| Explanatory variables specified as: maximum lag length of explanatory variables as instruments: maximum lag length of dependent variable as instruments | M17 pred. T–1 T–2 | M18 end. T–2 T–2 | M19 pred. 2 T–2 | M20 end. 2 T–2 | M21 pred. 2 2 | M22 end. 2 2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Women’s share of migrants)t−1 | 0.463*** (0.058) | 0.477*** (0.058) | 0.484*** (0.068) | 0.519*** (0.067) | 0.508*** (0.067) | 0.541*** (0.065) |
| Women’s economic rights | 0.106*** (0.033) | 0.121*** (0.035) | 0.130*** (0.042) | 0.159*** (0.042) | 0.118*** (0.043) | 0.144*** (0.042) |
| Per capita income | 0.176 (0.108) | 0.140 (0.090) | 0.125 (0.093) | 0.065 (0.081) | 0.125 (0.093) | 0.072 (0.081) |
| Growth in per capita income | 0.021 (0.039) | 0.011 (0.036) | 0.019 (0.041) | 0.013 (0.047) | 0.020 (0.040) | 0.011 (0.046) |
| Democracy (polity2) | 0.252 (0.162) | 0.232 (0.176) | 0.214 (0.216) | 0.140 (0.233) | 0.243 (0.231) | 0.180 (0.250) |
| Major political violence dummy | −2.435 (3.285) | 0.352 (3.164) | −3.386 (3.186) | 1.050 (3.188) | −3.506 (3.133) | 0.752 (3.033) |
| Country effects | Fixed | Fixed | Fixed | Fixed | Fixed | Fixed |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 825 | 825 | 825 | 825 | 825 | 825 |
| Number of countries | 112 | 112 | 112 | 112 | 112 | 112 |
| Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) | −0.984 (0.325) | −0.984 (0.325) | −0.984 (0.325) | −0.984 (0.325) | −2.22 (0.026) | −2.22 (0.026) |
| #Migrants | %Women | |
|---|---|---|
| Mali | 5,409 | 7.19 |
| Gambia | 18,747 | 8.01 |
| Guinea-Bissau | 2,568 | 10.51 |
| Niger | 1,419 | 12.12 |
| Algeria | 31,840 | 12.50 |
| Chad | 1,044 | 12.74 |
| Sudan | 7,998 | 14.08 |
| Guinea | 16,317 | 14.17 |
| Mauritania | 1,101 | 15.44 |
| Senegal | 7,204 | 16.21 |
| Liberia | 1,096 | 16.51 |
| Bangladesh | 16,187 | 17.61 |
| Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) | 2,471 | 17.77 |
| Benin | 2,782 | 19.55 |
| Pakistan | 81,191 | 19.73 |
| Sierra Leone | 3,751 | 22.18 |
| Côte D’Ivoire | 6,679 | 24.82 |
| Eritrea | 66,847 | 26.67 |
| Tunisia | 31,364 | 28.68 |
| Egypt | 34,608 | 29.44 |
| Afghanistan | 258,268 | 29.61 |
| Libya | 23,799 | 30.00 |
| India | 167,675 | 32.68 |
| Lebanon | 24,276 | 33.01 |
| Morocco | 62,907 | 33.26 |
| Yemen | 6,304 | 34.57 |
| Tajikistan | 6,535 | 34.80 |
| Ghana | 25,805 | 35.03 |
| Syria | 696,516 | 37.14 |
| Iraq | 232,365 | 38.16 |
| Albania | 125,266 | 38.51 |
| Ethiopia | 15,830 | 38.75 |
| Nigeria | 52,282 | 38.80 |
| Iran | 98,936 | 38.80 |
| Congo | 1,201 | 39.80 |
| Turkey (Ottoman Empire) | 230,513 | 39.87 |
| Togo | 5,117 | 40.18 |
| Jordan | 11,184 | 40.29 |
| Jamaica | 1,005 | 41.00 |
| Georgia | 37,604 | 41.20 |
| Serbia | 98,872 | 41.61 |
| Myanmar (Burma) | 1,503 | 41.78 |
| Cameroon | 20,560 | 42.31 |
| Tanzania | 2,081 | 42.62 |
| Sri Lanka | 10,629 | 42.72 |
| Congo, Dem. Rep. | 3,459 | 43.60 |
| Azerbaijan | 20,097 | 43.96 |
| Rwanda | 1,035 | 44.73 |
| Angola | 3,295 | 44.80 |
| Malaysia | 6,382 | 45.03 |
| North Macedonia | 99,909 | 45.27 |
| Guatemala | 1,134 | 46.47 |
| Argentina | 8,322 | 46.97 |
| Mexico | 32,026 | 47.13 |
| Nepal | 8,638 | 48.67 |
| Uzbekistan | 5,377 | 49.01 |
| Costa Rica | 2,182 | 49.36 |
| Vietnam | 47,945 | 49.49 |
| Moldova | 19,666 | 50.34 |
| Uganda | 2,226 | 50.36 |
| Armenia | 23,275 | 50.46 |
| South Africa | 7,022 | 50.66 |
| China | 177,068 | 50.77 |
| Ecuador | 6,135 | 52.09 |
| Indonesia | 20,770 | 52.97 |
| El Salvador | 1,278 | 52.97 |
| Venezuela | 6,209 | 53.81 |
| Cuba | 6,174 | 54.08 |
| Singapore | 4,012 | 54.29 |
| Brazil | 62,703 | 54.44 |
| Honduras | 1,226 | 54.65 |
| Turkmenistan | 2,439 | 55.35 |
| Colombia | 21,714 | 56.33 |
| Bolivia | 2,527 | 56.95 |
| Paraguay | 1,737 | 58.09 |
| Peru | 7,980 | 60.11 |
| Zimbabwe | 2,287 | 60.25 |
| Russia | 167,153 | 60.35 |
| Mongolia | 6,154 | 60.61 |
| Kazakhstan | 16,423 | 60.66 |
| Ukraine | 86,397 | 60.80 |
| Dominican Republic | 5,212 | 62.28 |
| Belarus | 14,306 | 63.88 |
| Kyrgyz Republic | 5,508 | 63.98 |
| Philippines | 18,539 | 66.61 |
| Kenya | 9,281 | 68.24 |
| Thailand | 27,462 | 76.21 |
| Madagascar | 2,407 | 81.14 |
[i] Note: Only countries shown with total migrant entry of 1,000 or above over the 2009–2018 period.
| Going places |
| Can a woman apply for a passport in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally travel outside the country in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally travel outside her home in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally choose where to live in the same way as a man? |
| Starting a job |
| Can a woman get a job or pursue a trade or profession in the same way as a man? |
| Does the law mandate non-discrimination based on gender in employment? |
| Is there legislation on sexual harassment in employment? |
| Are there criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment? |
| Getting paid |
| Does the law mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value? |
| Can women work the same night hours as men? |
| Can women work in jobs deemed hazardous, arduous, or morally inappropriate in the same way as men? |
| Are women able to work in the same industries as men? |
| Getting married |
| Is a married woman not legally required to obey her husband? |
| Can a woman be head of household or head of the family in the same way as a man? |
| Is there domestic violence legislation? |
| Can a woman obtain a judgment of divorce in the same way as a man? |
| Do women have the same rights to remarry as men? |
| Having children |
| Is there paid leave of at least 14 weeks available to women? |
| Does the government pay 100% of maternity leave benefits, or parental leave benefits (where maternity leave is unavailable)? |
| Is there paid paternity leave? |
| Is there paid parental leave? |
| Is dismissal of pregnant workers prohibited? |
| Running a business |
| Can a woman legally sign a contract in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally register a business in the same way as a man? |
| Can a woman legally open a bank account in the same way as a man? |
| Does the law prohibit discrimination by creditors based on sex or gender? |
| Managing assets |
| Do men and married women have equal ownership rights to property? |
| Do sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their parents? |
| Do female and male surviving spouses have equal rights to inherit assets? |
| Does the law grant spouses equal administrative authority over assets during the marriage? |
| Does the law provide for the valuation of nonmonetary contributions? |
| Getting a pension |
| Are the ages at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits equal? |
| Are the ages at which men and women can retire with partial pension benefits equal? |
| Is the mandatory retirement age for men and women equal? |
| Does the law establish explicit pension care credits for periods of childcare? |
[i] Note: Each of these dimensions is coded and the overall women’s economic rights index is the percentage share of positive answers to the questions in these dimensions.
| Variable | Obs | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Share of women among migrant pop. | 825 | 44.70 | 15.74 | 3.91 | 84.55 |
| (Share of women among migrant pop.)t−1 | 825 | 45.17 | 15.63 | 3.91 | 84.55 |
| Women’s economic rights (OECD) | 825 | 50.68 | 21.40 | 1.07 | 94.83 |
| Per capita income | 825 | 3.97 | 6.59 | −62.08 | 123.14 |
| Growth in per capita income | 825 | 3.12 | 5.53 | −9 | 10 |
| Democracy (polity2) | 825 | 0.12 | 0.33 | 0 | 1 |
| Major political violence dummy variable | 825 | 58.76 | 15.85 | 16.16 | 93.09 |
| Distance to Germany (ln) | 825 | 8.63 | 0.56 | 7.06 | 9.69 |
| Visa requirement dummy variable | 825 | 0.84 | 0.37 | 0 | 1 |
| Women’s economic rights (World Bank) | 1,066 | 67.02 | 16.59 | 23.13 | 96.88 |
| Women’s civil society participation | 824 | 0.71 | 0.16 | 0.06 | 0.95 |
| Women’s political participation | 824 | 0.87 | 0.16 | 0.23 | 1 |
[i] OECD, Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development.