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Spaniards in the wider world: the role of education in the choice of destination country

IZA Journal of Development and Migration
Volume 12 (2021): Issue 1 (January 2021)
By:
Open Access
|Jun 2021

Figures & Tables

Figure 1

Notes: Dependent variable: languages (English, Spanish, and Others). Standard errors are robust. With respect to the sample, see the notes in Table 2. Countries are classified using the official or the most common language. The numbers correspond to the outcome categories: “1” indicates English, “2” indicates Others, and “3” indicates Spanish. The additive scale on the bottom axis measures the value of βi,m|n δ. The multiplicative scale on the top axis measures exp(βi,m|n)δ. The statistical significance is shown by drawing a line between categories for which there is no significant coefficient at the 5% level. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.
Notes: Dependent variable: languages (English, Spanish, and Others). Standard errors are robust. With respect to the sample, see the notes in Table 2. Countries are classified using the official or the most common language. The numbers correspond to the outcome categories: “1” indicates English, “2” indicates Others, and “3” indicates Spanish. The additive scale on the bottom axis measures the value of βi,m|n δ. The multiplicative scale on the top axis measures exp(βi,m|n)δ. The statistical significance is shown by drawing a line between categories for which there is no significant coefficient at the 5% level. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.

Figure 2

Notes: Dependent variables: languages and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A2. The numbers correspond to the following outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe (English), “2” is for America (English), “3” represents Europe (Others), “4” corresponds to America (Others), and “5” means America (Spanish). UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.
Notes: Dependent variables: languages and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A2. The numbers correspond to the following outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe (English), “2” is for America (English), “3” represents Europe (Others), “4” corresponds to America (Others), and “5” means America (Spanish). UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.

Figure 3

Notes: Dependent variables: languages, unemployment level, and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A4. The numbers correspond to the outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe, unemployment rate (UR) below the average, and English as the most common language; “2” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and Others as the most common language; “3” stands for America, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “4” corresponds to America, UR below the average, and Spanish as the most common language; “5” means Europe, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; “6” indicates America, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; and “7” represents America, UR above the average, and Spanish as the most common language. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.
Notes: Dependent variables: languages, unemployment level, and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A4. The numbers correspond to the outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe, unemployment rate (UR) below the average, and English as the most common language; “2” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and Others as the most common language; “3” stands for America, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “4” corresponds to America, UR below the average, and Spanish as the most common language; “5” means Europe, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; “6” indicates America, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; and “7” represents America, UR above the average, and Spanish as the most common language. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.

Figure A1

Notes: Dependent variables: languages, unemployment level, and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A4. The sample consists of Spanish emigrants in Argentina 2001, Austria 2001, Bolivia 2001, Brazil 2000, Chile 2002, Colombia 2005, Costa Rica 2000, Cuba 2002, El Salvador 2007, Greece 2001, Ireland 2002, Mexico 2000, Nicaragua 2005, Panama 2000, Peru 2007, Portugal 2001, United States 2000, UK 1991, and Venezuela 2001. The dependent variable is a combination of the location of the destination countries, the official language (or the most common language), and the UR. This location is classified into the following categories: Europe and America. The language classification is as follows: English, Spanish, and Others. The UR is divided into two categories: above-average UR and below-average UR. The numbers correspond to the following outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “2” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and Others as the most common language; “3” indicates America, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “4” corresponds to America, UR below the average, and Spanish as the most common language; “5” means Europe, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; “6” indicates America, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; and “7” represents America, UR above the average, and Spanish as the most common language. The additive scale on the bottom axis measures the value of βi,m|n δ. The multiplicative scale on the top axis measures exp(βi,m|n)δ. Estimates are weighted. Standard errors are robust. The statistical significance is shown by drawing a line between the categories for which there is no significant coefficient at the 5% level. UR = unemployment rate. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.
Notes: Dependent variables: languages, unemployment level, and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A4. The sample consists of Spanish emigrants in Argentina 2001, Austria 2001, Bolivia 2001, Brazil 2000, Chile 2002, Colombia 2005, Costa Rica 2000, Cuba 2002, El Salvador 2007, Greece 2001, Ireland 2002, Mexico 2000, Nicaragua 2005, Panama 2000, Peru 2007, Portugal 2001, United States 2000, UK 1991, and Venezuela 2001. The dependent variable is a combination of the location of the destination countries, the official language (or the most common language), and the UR. This location is classified into the following categories: Europe and America. The language classification is as follows: English, Spanish, and Others. The UR is divided into two categories: above-average UR and below-average UR. The numbers correspond to the following outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “2” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and Others as the most common language; “3” indicates America, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “4” corresponds to America, UR below the average, and Spanish as the most common language; “5” means Europe, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; “6” indicates America, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; and “7” represents America, UR above the average, and Spanish as the most common language. The additive scale on the bottom axis measures the value of βi,m|n δ. The multiplicative scale on the top axis measures exp(βi,m|n)δ. Estimates are weighted. Standard errors are robust. The statistical significance is shown by drawing a line between the categories for which there is no significant coefficient at the 5% level. UR = unemployment rate. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.

Location choice: destination countries classified by languages, URs, and continents

Variables123
Secondary education completed
EU/LU/English–EU/LU/Others15.571***9.662***9.595***
EU/LU/English–AM/LU/English1.5101.712*1.701*
EU/LU/English–AM/LU/Spanish1.3641.6671.555
EU/LU/English–EU/HU/Others2.203*2.431*2.411 *
EU/LU/English–AM/HU/Others3.130***3.689***3.647***
EU/LU/English–AM/HU/Spanish3.189***3.741***3.700***
EU/LU/Others–AM/LU/English0.097***0.177***0.177***
EU/LU/Others–AM/LU/Spanish0.088***0.173***0.162***
EU/LU/Others–EU/HU/Others0.142***0.252***0.251***
EU/LU/Others–AM/HU/Others0.201***0.382***0.380***
EU/LU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish0.205***0.387***0.386***
AM/LU/English–AM/LU/Spanish0.9030.9740.914
AM/LU/English–EU/HU/Others1.4591.4191.418
AM/LU/English–AM/HU/Others2.073***2.155***2.144 ***
AM/LU/English–AM/HU/Spanish2.112***2.185***2.175***
AM/LU/Spanish–EU/HU/Others1.6151.4581.550
AM/LU/Spanish–AM/HU/Others2.295***2.213***2.345***
AM/LU/Spanish–AM/HU/Spanish2.338***2.244***2.379***
EU/HU/Others–AM/HU/Others1.4211.5181.513
EU/HU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish1.4471.5391.535
AM/HU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish1.0191.0141.015
Some college/university education completed
EU/LU/English-EU/LU/Others10.706***9.888 ***9.912***
EU/LU/English–AM/LU/English0.7230.8540.861
EU/LU/English–AM/LU/Spanish0.7120.9670.853
EU/LU/English–EU/HU/Others1.6771.9111.923
EU/LU/English–AM/HU/Others1.926**2.325**2.361**
EU/LU/English–AM/HU/Spanish3.700***4.460***4.522***
EU/LU/Others–AM/LU/English0.068***0.086***0.087***
EU/LU/Others–AM/LU/Spanish0.067***0.098***0.086***
EU/LU/Others–EU/HU/Others0.157***0.193***0.194***
EU/LU/Others–AM/HU/Others0.180***0.235***0.238***
EU/LU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish0.346***0.451***0.456***
AM/LU/English–AM/LU/Spanish0.9851.1310.991
AM/LU/English–EU/HU/Others2.320**2.236**2.235**
AM/LU/English–AM/HU/Others2.665***2.721***2.744***
AM/LU/English–AM/HU/Spanish5.119 ***5.219***5.254***
AM/LU/Spanish–EU/HU/Others2.357 **1.976*2.256**
AM/LU/Spanish–AM/HU/Others2.707***2.405***2.770***
AM/LU/Spanish–AM/HU/Spanish5.199***4.613***5.304***
EU/HU/Others–AM/HU/Others1.1481.2171.228
EU/HU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish2.206**2.334**2.351**
AM/HU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish1.921***1.918***1.915***
Year dummiesNoYesYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.1590.5290.581
Observations54,27554,27554,476

Location choice: destination countries classified by language (dependent variable: English, Spanish, and Others)

Variables12345678
Secondary education completed
English–Others8.797***2.328 ***2.862***2.328***2.881***2.328***2.117***2.328***
English–Spanish2.027***1.396**2.047***1.396**2.100***1.396**1.509***1.396**
Others–Spanish0.230***0.600***0.715***0.600***0.729***0.600***0.713***0.600***
Some college/university completed
English–Others11.937***2.752***4.127***2.752***4.159***2.752***2.628***2.752***
English–Spanish3.680***1.548 ***3.720***1.548***4.152***1.548***1.606***1.548***
Others–Spanish0.308***0.563***0.9010.563***0.9980.563***0.611***0.563***
Year dummiesNoYesNoYesNoYesYesYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.1610.7130.1440.4710.1540.4600.5170.735
Observations54,31754,31713,12413,12412,78112,78112,86554,518

Robustness check: considering different subsamples varying the age of Spanish emigrants (dependent variable: English, Spanish, and Others)

Variables12345678910
Secondary education completed
English–Others8.797***2.328 ***9.407***2.704***9.028***2.2033***9.930***2.089***1.444***3.174***
English–Spanish2.027***1.396**2.352***1.587***1.747***1.2041.955***1.2620.732***1.244
Others–Spanish0.230***0.600***0.250***0.587***0.194***0.5463***0.197***0.604***0.507***0.392***
Some college/university education completed
English–Others11.937***2.752***12.257***3.268***12.73***2.4242***14.727***2.276***8.223***4.229***
English–Spanish3.680***1.548 ***4.148***1.630***2.940***1.4963***3.404***1.705***1.509**1.568**
Others–Spanish0.308***0.563***0.338***0.499***0.231***0.6172***0.231***0.749**0.184***0.371***
Year dummiesNoYesNoYesNoYesNoYesNoYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.1610.7130.1520.7130.1610.6980.1600.6960.0840.674
Observations54,31754,31765,04565,04530,74330,74327,23527,23512,25912,259

Analysis over time: decades 1960–2000 (dependent variable: languages – English, Spanish, and Others)

Decade 196012Decade 197034
Secondary education completed
English–Others16.073***17.345*** 10.797***10.744***
English–Spanish4.734***3.257** 9.623***10.847***
Others–Spanish0.295***0.188*** 0.8911.010
Some college/university education completed
English–Others14.586***15.379*** 10.240***10.180***
English–Spanish4.752***1.626 10.505***10.406***
Others–Spanish0.326***0.106*** 1.0261.022
Year dummiesNoYes NoYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.0780.546 0.0520.178
Observations8,8038,803 24,22624,226
Decade 1980 Decade 1990
Secondary education completed
English–Others3.701***3.879*** 1.0711.056
English–Spanish5.469***6.050*** 1.473***1.533***
Others–Spanish1.478***1.560*** 1.376***1.451***
Some college/university education completed
English–Others4.175 ***4.411*** 1.0691.062
English–Spanish7.312***7.992*** 1.598***1.816***
Others–Spanish1.752***1.812*** 1.495***1.710 ***
Year dummiesNoYes NoYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.0530.084 0.0780.094
Observations27,49927,499 17,36817,368
Decade 2000
Secondary education completed
English–Others4.130***4.130***
English–Spanish3.879***3.879***
Others–Spanish0.9390.939
Some college/university education completed
English–Others4.599 ***4.599 ***
English–Spanish8.628***8.628***
Others–Spanish1.876**1.876**
Year dummiesNoYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.1200.120
Observations2,7182,718

Summary statistics by destination country: countries sorted alphabetically

Country12345678910
Age, yearsMalesSecondary education completedCollege or moreMarriedEmployedOfficial/most common languageUnemployment rate, %ContinentObservations, n
Argentina51.970.490.310.170.730.58Spanish18.3America3,372
Austria38.800.370.280.340.370.73German3.6Europe132
Bolivia41.060.560.320.640.470.64Spanish5.4America77
Brazil50.440.580.270.360.800.65Portuguese9.5America737
Chile41.650.570.240.690.690.70Spanish8.9America379
Colombia42.150.600.120.850.620.76Spanish12.0America96
Costa Rica42.550.570.210.670.640.70Spanish5.1America86
Cuba50.360.450.400.330.670.55Spanish3.3America55
El Salvador42.240.520.160.720.840.80Spanish6.3America25
France47.010.470.120.210.660.74French8.8Europe41,193
Greece39.870.220.310.500.720.54Greek10.2Europe68
Ireland30.430.360.300.660.180.79English4.2Europe343
Mexico43.650.590.300.510.820.70Spanish2.6America850
Nicaragua41.560.440.260.700.670.78Spanish5.6America27
Panama43.520.580.260.490.760.79Spanish13.5America96
Peru42.420.610.220.740.570.57Spanish4.5America195
The Philippines38.680.400.100.410.660.00Filipino11.2Asia19
Portugal39.560.440.200.340.750.69Portuguese4.0Europe259
South Africa47.070.570.600.210.790.65English25.4Africa23
The United States38.800.480.230.660.660.73English4.0America3,248
Venezuela48.530.530.340.290.760.66Spanish12.8America3,037
Mean45.340.490.210.360.680.70 8.75
Standard deviation9.690.500.410.480.470.46 4.47

Location choice: destination countries classified by languages and continents

Variables123
Secondary education completed
Europe (English)–America (English)1.4911.660*1.660*
Europe (English)–Europe (Others)15.209***8.468***8.468***
Europe (English)–America (Others)3.076***3.516***3.516***
Europe (English)–America (Spanish)2.854***3.297***3.297***
America (English)–Europe (Others)10.199***5.101***5.101***
America (English)–America (Others)2.063***2.118***2.118***
America (English) –America (Spanish)1.914***1.986***1.986***
Europe (Others)–America (Others)0.202***0.415***0.415***
Europe (Others)–America (Spanish)0.188***0.389***0.389***
America (Others)–America (Spanish)0.9280.938*0.938
Some college/university education completed
Europe (English)–America (English)0.7000.8150.815
Europe (English)–Europe (Others)10.150***8.417***8.417***
Europe (English)–America (Others)1.800**2.118**2.118**
Europe (English)–America (Spanish)2.521***3.265***3.265***
America (English)–Europe (Others)14.503***10.331***10.332***
America (English)–America (Others)2.572***2.600***2.600***
America (English)–America (Spanish)3.602***4.007***4.008***
Europe (Others)–America (Others)0.177***0.252***0.252***
Europe (Others)–America (Spanish)0.248***0.388***0.388***
America (Others)–America (Spanish)1.401***1.541***1.541***
Year dummiesNoYesYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.1610.5700.632
Observations54,27554,27554,476

Location choice: destination countries classified by URs and continents

Variables123
Secondary education completed
Europe/LU–America/LU0.099***0.255***0.255***
Europe/LU–Europe/HU0.148***0.363***0.363***
Europe/LU–America/HU0.209***0.548***0.548***
America/LU–Europe/HU1.4981.4241.424
America/LU–America/HU2.109***2.148***2.148***
Europe/HU–America/HU1.4071.5081.508
Some college/university education completed
Europe/LU–America/LU0.069***0.133***0.133***
Europe/LU–Europe/HU0.161***0.292***0.292***
Europe/LU–America/HU0.307 ***0.590***0.590***
America/LU–Europe/HU2.344**2.189 **2.189**
America/LU–America/HU4.479***4.425***4.425***
Europe/HU–America/HU1.911*2.022**2.022**
Year dummiesNoYesYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.1780.6300.646
Observations54,27554,27554,476

Location choice: destination countries classified by economic situation (dependent variables: high UR [HU], medium UR [MU], and low UR [LU])

Variables123
Secondary education completed
LU–MU3.783***1.0141.014
LU–HU1.505***1.571***1.571***
MU–HU0.3978***1.549***1.549***
Some college/university completed
LU–MU2.898***0.712**0.712**
LU–HU2.347***2.622***2.622***
MU–HU0.810***3.683***3.683***
Year dummiesNoYesYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.0780.3730.389
Observations54,31754,31754,518

Location choice: destination countries classified by continent (dependent variable: Europe, America, and Others)

Variables123
Secondary education completed
Europe–America0.168***0.413***0.413***
Europe–Others0.139***0.333**0.333**
America–Others0.8280.8060.806
Some college/university completed
Europe–America0.151***0.252***0.252***
Europe–Others0.288**0.4570.457
America–Others1.9081.8101.811
Year dummiesNoYesYes
McFadden's adjusted R20.1340.8230.834
Observations54,31754,31754,518
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2021-0006 | Journal eISSN: 2520-1786
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Language: English
Accepted on: Apr 19, 2021
Published on: Jun 14, 2021
Published by: Sciendo
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 times per year
Keywords:
education,
migration,
Spain
Related subjects:
Business and economics,
Political economics,
Microeconomics,
Macroeconomics,
Economic policy,
Mathematics and statistics for economists,
Econometrics

© 2021 Héctor Bellido, Miriam Marcén, Marina Morales, published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

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