Gender Imbalances and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from Large-Scale Mexican Migration

	N	Mean	Standard deviation	Minimum	Maximum
Panel A: Explanatory variables of interest
Sex ratio (men/women)	640	0.93	0.05	0.81	1.13
Predicted migration, EMIF	640	0.21	0.17	0.01	0.95
Predicted migration, ENE	640	0.23	0.21	0.01	1.14
Predicted migration, MC	640	0.21	0.17	0.01	0.84
Predicted migration, historical	640	0.17	0.26	0.00	2.08
Panel B: Labor market outcomes
Women's labor force participation (%)	640	0.35	0.12	0.05	0.62
Women in white collar jobs (%)	640	0.47	0.14	0.08	0.78
Women in “brain” jobs (%)	640	0.37	0.11	0.08	0.72
Women in male-dominated professions (%)	640	0.06	0.03	0.00	0.19
Log (average earned monthly income), women	640	7.99	0.26	7.27	8.91
Women in top 25 of income (%)	640	0.20	0.09	0.03	0.55
Weekly hours worked, for women	480	40.34	2.10	32.11	56.55
Panel C: Other outcomes
Women in blue collar jobs (%)	640	0.53	0.14	0.22	0.92
Women in “brawn” jobs (%)	640	0.63	0.11	0.28	0.89
Years of schooling, women	640	8.00	2.43	1.57	12.98
Lower secondary educated women (%)	640	0.21	0.09	0.01	0.44
Upper secondary educated women (%)	640	0.11	0.07	0.002	0.29
College-educated women (%)	640	0.09	0.06	0.00	0.34
Never married women (%)	640	0.20	0.17	0.02	0.72

[i] Source: Hours worked are available only in the 1990, 2000, and 2010 census. Income is scaled to 2000 year peso values using CPI information provided by INEGI. See Section 2.2 for details on definition of labor market categories.

Table 2

First stage results

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
	Actual	Random	Excluding	Excluding	Excluding	Excluding	Alternative
	Weights	Weights	Strong	Strong	Largest	Largest	Demand
			Connections	Connections2	Receiving	Sending	CPS change
Predicted migration, EMIF	−0.228^*** (0.028)	−0.034^*** (0.011)	−0.295^*** (0.030)	−0.228^*** (0.028)	−0.460^*** (0.063)	−0.301^*** (0.037)	−0.211^*** (0.038)
R²	0.61	0.57	0.62	0.61	0.59	0.61	0.55
Predicted migration, ENE	−0.155^*** (0.022)	−0.033^*** (0.011)	−0.175^*** (0.028)	−0.154^*** (0.022)	−0.356^*** (0.051)	−0.194^*** (0.033)	−0.162^*** (0.030)
R²	0.59	0.57	0.59	0.59	0.59	0.58	0.55
Predicted migration, MC	−0.206^*** (0.025)	−0.033^*** (0.011)	−0.225^*** (0.029)	−0.206^*** (0.025)	−0.360^*** (0.063)	−0.244^*** (0.034)	−0.251^*** (0.035)
R²	0.60	0.57	0.60	0.60	0.58	0.59	0.56
Observations	640	640	640	640	640	600	640

Notes: Dependent variable = Sex ratio (men/women). Robust standard errors, clustered at state–age group level in parentheses. All regressions include: state, year, age group fixed effects, percentage of the state's workforce employed in different industries by year (two-digit code). Column (3) excludes connections where both the U.S. and Mexican weights exceed 15%. Column (4) excludes connections where only the U.S. weight exceeds 50%. Column (5) excludes the largest receiving states: California, Texas, Arizona, and Florida. Column (6) excludes main sending states: Michoacán and Zacatecas (immigration rates greater than 10% of HHs).

*** p-value < 0.01,

** p-value < 0.05,

* p-value < 0.1.

Source: Mexican Census (MC), accessed through IPUMS.

Table 3

Second stage IV results

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
	Female labor force participation	% Women in white collar jobs	% Women in “Brain” jobs	% Women in male-dominated professions	Log monthly earned income by women	% Women in top 25% income	Weekly hours worked by women
Panel A: OLS
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.419^*** (0.064)	−0.232^*** (0.053)	−0.457^*** (0.046)	−0.042^** (0.018)	−0.355^*** (0.129)	−0.063 (0.040)	−1.241 (1.871)
R²	0.89	0.90	0.85	0.81	0.84	0.88	0.61
Panel B: Weighting source EMIF
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.693^*** (0.145)	−0.676^*** (0.152)	−1.065^*** (0.141)	−0.020 (0.035)	−0.645^** (0.292)	−0.125 (0.085)	8.865^* (5.039)
R²	0.89	0.88	0.81	0.81	0.84	0.88	0.58
A-P F statistic	66.12	66.12	66.12	66.12	66.12	66.12	41.60
K-P chi squared	52.40	52.40	52.40	52.40	52.40	52.40	41.47
Panel C: Weighting source ENE
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.666^*** (0.167)	−0.815^*** (0.192)	−1.167^*** (0.176)	−0.048 (0.042)	−1.092^** (0.465)	−0.396^*** (0.152)	11.499^* (6.706)
R²	0.89	0.87	0.79	0.81	0.83	0.86	0.56
A-P F statistic	49.09	49.09	49.09	49.09	49.09	49.09	23.15
K-P chi squared	35.33	35.33	35.33	35.33	35.33	35.33	20.89
Panel D: Weighting Source MC
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.822^*** (0.155)	−0.764^*** (0.173)	−1.197^*** (0.172)	−0.047 (0.039)	−0.871^** (0.358)	−0.244^** (0.103)	13.474^* (7.201)
R²	0.88	0.88	0.79	0.81	0.84	0.87	0.54
A-P F statistic	65.68	65.68	65.68	65.68	65.68	65.68	32.31
K-P chi squared	44.19	44.19	44.19	44.19	44.19	44.19	28.70
Observations	640	640	640	640	640	640	480

Notes: Robust standard errors, clustered at state–age group level in parentheses. All regressions include: state, year, age group fixed effects, percentage of the state's workforce employed in different industries by year (two-digit code). Hours worked are available only in the 1990, 2000, and 2010 census. See Section 2.2 for details on definition of categories. A-P stands for Angrist–Pischke F statistic. K-P stands for Kleinbergen–Paap rk LM chi-squared statistic.

*** p-value < 0.01,

** p-value < 0.05,

* p-value < 0.1.

Source: Mexican Census, accessed through IPUMS.

Table 4

Other outcomes, second stage, IV results

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
	% Female in blue collar jobs	% Female in “Brawn” jobs	Years of schooling for women	% Women with lower secondary education (9)	% Women with upper secondary education (12)	% Women with college education (16+)	% Women who never married
Panel A: OLS
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.232^*** (0.053)	0.460^*** (0.046)	−6.669^*** (0.736)	−0.371^*** (0.062)	0.067^** (0.028)	−0.136^*** (0.028)	0.033 (0.032)
R²	0.90	0.85	0.96	0.82	0.92	0.90	0.99
Panel B: Weighting source EMIF
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.676^*** (0.152)	1.077^*** (0.141)	−12.733^*** (1.614)	−0.708^*** (0.140)	0.381^*** (0.070)	−0.034 (0.067)	−0.023 (0.065)
R²	0.88	0.81	0.95	0.80	0.89	0.89	0.99
Panel C: Weighting source ENE
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.815^*** (0.192)	1.168^*** (0.176)	−17.306^*** (2.528)	−1.108^*** (0.193)	0.281^*** (0.074)	−0.109 (0.077)	0.063 (0.085)
R²	0.87	0.79	0.93	0.73	0.90	0.90	0.99
Panel D: Weighting source MC
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.763^*** (0.173)	1.207^*** (0.173)	−16.072^*** (1.965)	−0.875^*** (0.145)	0.303^*** (0.068)	−0.172^*** (0.065)	0.006 (0.073)
R²	0.88	0.79	0.94	0.78	0.90	0.90	0.99
Observations	640	640	640	640	640	640	640

*** p-value < 0.01,

** p-value < 0.05,

* p-value < 0.1.

Source: Mexican Census, accessed through IPUMS.

Table 5

Second stage results: by education level

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
	Female labor force participation	% Women in white collar jobs	% Women in “Brain” jobs	% Women in male-dominated professions	Log monthly earned income by women	% Women in top 25% income	Weekly hours worked by women
Panel A: More than upper secondary (>12 years)
Sex ratio (men/women)	−1.857^* (0.994)	−1.668 (1.113)	−2.039 (1.304)	−0.447 (0.333)	−2.373 (1.551)	−1.052 (0.694)	32.611 (49.891)
R²	−4.47	−9.08	−15.96	−1.51	−0.77	−0.87	−11.02
A-P F statistic	3.29	2.89	2.89	2.89	2.89	2.89	0.43
Panel B: Upper secondary (10–12 years)
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.006 (0.033)	0.071^* (0.042)	−0.059 (0.044)	0.114^*** (0.030)	0.029 (0.094)	0.077 (0.053)	−4.924^*** (1.843)
R²	0.66	0.68	0.85	0.32	0.79	0.76	0.28
A-P F statistic	22.04	22.95	22.95	22.95	22.95	22.95	17.81
Panel C: Lower secondary or less (9 or less)
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.297^*** (0.065)	−0.235^*** (0.081)	−0.325^*** (0.060)	0.046^*** (0.011)	0.650^*** (0.186)	0.182^*** (0.039)	5.324^* (2.912)
R²	0.86	0.84	0.89	0.76	0.86	0.82	0.69
A-P F statistic	56.16	56.16	56.16	56.16	56.16	56.16	29.44

Notes: Robust standard errors, clustered at state–age group level in parentheses. All regressions include the following controls: state, year, age group fixed effects, percentage of the state's workforce employed in different industries by year (two-digit code). Hours worked are available only in the 1990, 2000, and 2010 census. See Section 2.2 for details on definition of labor market categories. A-P stands for Angrist–Pischke F statistic. K-P stands for Kleinbergen–Paap rk LM chi-squared statistic.

*** p-value < 0.01,

** p-value < 0.05,

* p-value < 0.1.

Source: Mexican Census, accessed through IPUMS.

Table A1

Average Schooling by Job Type

Year	1990	2000	2010	2015
Panel A: Years of education, mean
White collar	15.8	13.3	12.5	12.8
Blue collar	6.4	7.1	8.1	6.7
Panel B: % with lower secondary education (9 years)
White collar	27.5	11.3	16.3	15.7
Blue collar	16.1	20.1	25.9	18.0
Panel C: % with upper secondary education (12 years)
White collar	11.1	21.4	19.6	20.4
Blue collar	4.0	9.7	12.5	8.3
Panel D: % with college education (16 or more years)
White collar	32.9	39.1	33.6	38.1
Blue collar	3.0	3.6	4.8	3.6

[i] Notes: Values are population weighted averages by census year. See Section 2.2 for details on definition of labor market categories.

Table A2

Sex Ratios and International Migration

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Age Groups	18–25	26–33	34–41	42–49	50–57
	International migration
	Panel A: 2000
% HH with international	−0.013^*** (0.002)	−0.014^*** (0.002)	−0.011^*** (0.002)	−0.005^* (0.003)	−0.006^* (0.003)
R²	0.53	0.67	0.58	0.10	0.11
Observations	32	32	32	32	32
	Panel B: 2010
% HH with international	−0.029^*** (0.005)	−0.032^*** (0.006)	−0.019^*** (0.005)	−0.016^*** (0.005)	−0.021^*** (0.007)
R²	0.56	0.49	0.34	0.26	0.25
Observations	32	32	32	32	32
	Homicides
	Panel C: 2010
Homicides per 10,000,000	0.043 (0.032)	0.053 (0.039)	−0.001 (0.029)	0.008 (0.028)	−0.003 (0.037)
R²	0.06	0.06	0.00	0.00	0.00
Observations	32	32	32	32	32
	Panel D: 2007–2010
Homicides per 10,000,000	0.012 (0.012)	0.017 (0.015)	−0.005 (0.011)	0.002 (0.011)	−0.004 (0.014)
R²	0.03	0.04	0.01	0.00	0.00
Observations	32	32	32	32	32

Notes: Standard errors in parenthesis.

*** p-value < 0.01,

** p-value < 0.05,

* p-value < 0.1.

Sources: Sex ratios and the percentage of households (HHs) with international migrants are from the Mexican Census, accessed through IPUMS. Homicides are from municipal death records compiled and made available by INEGI.

Table A3

Second stage results: robustness checks using EMIF weights

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
	Female Labor Force Participation	% Women in White Collar Jobs	% Women in “Brain” Jobs	% Women in Male-Dominated Professions	Log Monthly Earned Income by Women	% Women in Top 25% Income	Weekly Hours Worked by Women
	Panel A: Historic weights
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.128 (0.402)	−1.086 (0.667)	−1.111^* (0.633)	−0.199 (0.166)	−6.912^** (3.343)	−3.033^** (1.491)	3.215 (10.081)
A-P F statistic	6.47	6.47	6.47	6.47	6.47	6.47	7.05
	Panel B: Movers included
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.821^*** (0.148)	−0.745^*** (0.154)	−1.122^*** (0.142)	−0.028 (0.035)	−0.589^** (0.294)	−0.167^* (0.087)	9.058^* (4.828)
A-P F statistic	64.23	64.23	64.23	64.23	64.23	64.23	33.69
	Panel C: State-specific time trend
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.714^*** (0.125)	−0.669^*** (0.097)	−1.070^*** (0.098)	−0.019 (0.028)	−0.680^*** (0.208)	−0.068 (0.067)	7.997^** (3.943)
A-P F statistic	58.37	58.37	58.37	58.37	58.37	58.37	41.02
	Panel D: Age group and state time trends
Sex ratio (men/women)	1.873^*** (0.687)	−0.762^** (0.321)	−0.504^* (0.287)	−0.062 (0.087)	−0.495 (0.740)	0.123 (0.286)	27.850^** (12.612)
A-P F statistic	6.76	6.76	6.76	6.76	6.76	6.76	7.22
	Panel E: Additional state–year controls (FDI, Public Expenditure)
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.756^*** (0.123)	−0.671^*** (0.097)	−1.069^*** (0.098)	−0.033 (0.026)	−0.709^*** (0.206)	−0.087 (0.065)	6.996^* (3.940)
A-P F statistic	62.77	62.77	62.77	62.77	62.77	62.77	43.21

Notes: Robust standard errors, clustered at state–age group level in parentheses. All regressions include state, year, age fixed effects, percentage of the state's workforce employed in different industries by year.

*** p-value < 0.01,

** p-value < 0.05,

* p-value < 0.1.

Table A4

Predicted Male Migration to the United States, year 2000

Weighting Source		EMIF	ENE	MC
Weighting Source		(1)	(2)	(3)
18–25 age group	Mean	0.195	0.213	0.195
Standard deviation	0.136	0.177	0.137
26–33 age group	Mean	0.292	0.315	0.291
Standard deviation	0.215	0.269	0.214
34–41 age group	Mean	0.280	0.306	0.282
Standard deviation	0.200	0.259	0.198
42–49 age group	Mean	0.245	0.256	0.237
Standard deviation	0.160	0.210	0.157
50–57 age group	Mean	0.174	0.195	0.179
Standard deviation	0.113	0.163	0.113
Total	Mean	0.235	0.257	0.237
Standard deviation	0.173	0.222	0.172