Gender Imbalances and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from Large-Scale Mexican Migration

Conover, Emily; Khamis, Melanie; Pearlman, Sarah

Gender Imbalances and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from Large-Scale Mexican Migration

IZA Journal of Development and Migration

Volume 12 (2021): Issue 1 (January 2021)

By:

Emily Conover, Melanie Khamis and Sarah Pearlman

Open Access

|Jan 2021

Figures & Tables

Sex ratios. Panel A: By census year and age group, Mexico. Panel B: Comparison of Mexico, United States, and Brazil.Source: Brazil, Mexican, U.S. Census and ACS, accessed through IPUMS.

Sex Ratios and International Migration

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)

Age Groups	18–25	26–33	34–41	42–49	50–57
	International migration

	Panel A: 2000
% HH with international	−0.013^*** (0.002)	−0.014^*** (0.002)	−0.011^*** (0.002)	−0.005^* (0.003)	−0.006^* (0.003)
R²	0.53	0.67	0.58	0.10	0.11
Observations	32	32	32	32	32

	Panel B: 2010
% HH with international	−0.029^*** (0.005)	−0.032^*** (0.006)	−0.019^*** (0.005)	−0.016^*** (0.005)	−0.021^*** (0.007)
R²	0.56	0.49	0.34	0.26	0.25
Observations	32	32	32	32	32

	Homicides

	Panel C: 2010
Homicides per 10,000,000	0.043 (0.032)	0.053 (0.039)	−0.001 (0.029)	0.008 (0.028)	−0.003 (0.037)
R²	0.06	0.06	0.00	0.00	0.00
Observations	32	32	32	32	32

	Panel D: 2007–2010
Homicides per 10,000,000	0.012 (0.012)	0.017 (0.015)	−0.005 (0.011)	0.002 (0.011)	−0.004 (0.014)
R²	0.03	0.04	0.01	0.00	0.00
Observations	32	32	32	32	32

Second stage results: robustness checks using EMIF weights

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)

	Female Labor Force Participation	% Women in White Collar Jobs	% Women in “Brain” Jobs	% Women in Male-Dominated Professions	Log Monthly Earned Income by Women	% Women in Top 25% Income	Weekly Hours Worked by Women
	Panel A: Historic weights
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.128 (0.402)	−1.086 (0.667)	−1.111^* (0.633)	−0.199 (0.166)	−6.912^** (3.343)	−3.033^** (1.491)	3.215 (10.081)
A-P F statistic	6.47	6.47	6.47	6.47	6.47	6.47	7.05

	Panel B: Movers included
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.821^*** (0.148)	−0.745^*** (0.154)	−1.122^*** (0.142)	−0.028 (0.035)	−0.589^** (0.294)	−0.167^* (0.087)	9.058^* (4.828)
A-P F statistic	64.23	64.23	64.23	64.23	64.23	64.23	33.69

	Panel C: State-specific time trend
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.714^*** (0.125)	−0.669^*** (0.097)	−1.070^*** (0.098)	−0.019 (0.028)	−0.680^*** (0.208)	−0.068 (0.067)	7.997^** (3.943)
A-P F statistic	58.37	58.37	58.37	58.37	58.37	58.37	41.02

	Panel D: Age group and state time trends
Sex ratio (men/women)	1.873^*** (0.687)	−0.762^** (0.321)	−0.504^* (0.287)	−0.062 (0.087)	−0.495 (0.740)	0.123 (0.286)	27.850^** (12.612)
A-P F statistic	6.76	6.76	6.76	6.76	6.76	6.76	7.22

	Panel E: Additional state–year controls (FDI, Public Expenditure)
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.756^*** (0.123)	−0.671^*** (0.097)	−1.069^*** (0.098)	−0.033 (0.026)	−0.709^*** (0.206)	−0.087 (0.065)	6.996^* (3.940)
A-P F statistic	62.77	62.77	62.77	62.77	62.77	62.77	43.21

Other outcomes, second stage, IV results

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)

	% Female in blue collar jobs	% Female in “Brawn” jobs	Years of schooling for women	% Women with lower secondary education (9)	% Women with upper secondary education (12)	% Women with college education (16+)	% Women who never married
Panel A: OLS
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.232^*** (0.053)	0.460^*** (0.046)	−6.669^*** (0.736)	−0.371^*** (0.062)	0.067^** (0.028)	−0.136^*** (0.028)	0.033 (0.032)
R²	0.90	0.85	0.96	0.82	0.92	0.90	0.99

Panel B: Weighting source EMIF
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.676^*** (0.152)	1.077^*** (0.141)	−12.733^*** (1.614)	−0.708^*** (0.140)	0.381^*** (0.070)	−0.034 (0.067)	−0.023 (0.065)
R²	0.88	0.81	0.95	0.80	0.89	0.89	0.99

Panel C: Weighting source ENE
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.815^*** (0.192)	1.168^*** (0.176)	−17.306^*** (2.528)	−1.108^*** (0.193)	0.281^*** (0.074)	−0.109 (0.077)	0.063 (0.085)
R²	0.87	0.79	0.93	0.73	0.90	0.90	0.99

Panel D: Weighting source MC
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.763^*** (0.173)	1.207^*** (0.173)	−16.072^*** (1.965)	−0.875^*** (0.145)	0.303^*** (0.068)	−0.172^*** (0.065)	0.006 (0.073)
R²	0.88	0.79	0.94	0.78	0.90	0.90	0.99
Observations	640	640	640	640	640	640	640

First stage results

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)

	Actual	Random	Excluding	Excluding	Excluding	Excluding	Alternative

	Weights	Weights	Strong	Strong	Largest	Largest	Demand

			Connections	Connections2	Receiving	Sending	CPS change
Predicted migration, EMIF	−0.228^*** (0.028)	−0.034^*** (0.011)	−0.295^*** (0.030)	−0.228^*** (0.028)	−0.460^*** (0.063)	−0.301^*** (0.037)	−0.211^*** (0.038)
R²	0.61	0.57	0.62	0.61	0.59	0.61	0.55
Predicted migration, ENE	−0.155^*** (0.022)	−0.033^*** (0.011)	−0.175^*** (0.028)	−0.154^*** (0.022)	−0.356^*** (0.051)	−0.194^*** (0.033)	−0.162^*** (0.030)
R²	0.59	0.57	0.59	0.59	0.59	0.58	0.55
Predicted migration, MC	−0.206^*** (0.025)	−0.033^*** (0.011)	−0.225^*** (0.029)	−0.206^*** (0.025)	−0.360^*** (0.063)	−0.244^*** (0.034)	−0.251^*** (0.035)
R²	0.60	0.57	0.60	0.60	0.58	0.59	0.56
Observations	640	640	640	640	640	600	640

Second stage IV results

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)

	Female labor force participation	% Women in white collar jobs	% Women in “Brain” jobs	% Women in male-dominated professions	Log monthly earned income by women	% Women in top 25% income	Weekly hours worked by women
Panel A: OLS
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.419^*** (0.064)	−0.232^*** (0.053)	−0.457^*** (0.046)	−0.042^** (0.018)	−0.355^*** (0.129)	−0.063 (0.040)	−1.241 (1.871)
R²	0.89	0.90	0.85	0.81	0.84	0.88	0.61

Panel B: Weighting source EMIF
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.693^*** (0.145)	−0.676^*** (0.152)	−1.065^*** (0.141)	−0.020 (0.035)	−0.645^** (0.292)	−0.125 (0.085)	8.865^* (5.039)
R²	0.89	0.88	0.81	0.81	0.84	0.88	0.58
A-P F statistic	66.12	66.12	66.12	66.12	66.12	66.12	41.60
K-P chi squared	52.40	52.40	52.40	52.40	52.40	52.40	41.47

Panel C: Weighting source ENE
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.666^*** (0.167)	−0.815^*** (0.192)	−1.167^*** (0.176)	−0.048 (0.042)	−1.092^** (0.465)	−0.396^*** (0.152)	11.499^* (6.706)
R²	0.89	0.87	0.79	0.81	0.83	0.86	0.56
A-P F statistic	49.09	49.09	49.09	49.09	49.09	49.09	23.15
K-P chi squared	35.33	35.33	35.33	35.33	35.33	35.33	20.89

Panel D: Weighting Source MC
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.822^*** (0.155)	−0.764^*** (0.173)	−1.197^*** (0.172)	−0.047 (0.039)	−0.871^** (0.358)	−0.244^** (0.103)	13.474^* (7.201)
R²	0.88	0.88	0.79	0.81	0.84	0.87	0.54
A-P F statistic	65.68	65.68	65.68	65.68	65.68	65.68	32.31
K-P chi squared	44.19	44.19	44.19	44.19	44.19	44.19	28.70
Observations	640	640	640	640	640	640	480

Predicted Male Migration to the United States, year 2000

Weighting Source		EMIF	ENE	MC

		(1)	(2)	(3)
18–25 age group	Mean	0.195	0.213	0.195
18–25 age group	Standard deviation	0.136	0.177	0.137
26–33 age group	Mean	0.292	0.315	0.291
26–33 age group	Standard deviation	0.215	0.269	0.214
34–41 age group	Mean	0.280	0.306	0.282
34–41 age group	Standard deviation	0.200	0.259	0.198
42–49 age group	Mean	0.245	0.256	0.237
42–49 age group	Standard deviation	0.160	0.210	0.157
50–57 age group	Mean	0.174	0.195	0.179
50–57 age group	Standard deviation	0.113	0.163	0.113
Total	Mean	0.235	0.257	0.237
Total	Standard deviation	0.173	0.222	0.172

Second stage results: by education level

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)

	Female labor force participation	% Women in white collar jobs	% Women in “Brain” jobs	% Women in male-dominated professions	Log monthly earned income by women	% Women in top 25% income	Weekly hours worked by women
Panel A: More than upper secondary (>12 years)
Sex ratio (men/women)	−1.857^* (0.994)	−1.668 (1.113)	−2.039 (1.304)	−0.447 (0.333)	−2.373 (1.551)	−1.052 (0.694)	32.611 (49.891)
R²	−4.47	−9.08	−15.96	−1.51	−0.77	−0.87	−11.02
A-P F statistic	3.29	2.89	2.89	2.89	2.89	2.89	0.43

Panel B: Upper secondary (10–12 years)
Sex ratio (men/women)	0.006 (0.033)	0.071^* (0.042)	−0.059 (0.044)	0.114^*** (0.030)	0.029 (0.094)	0.077 (0.053)	−4.924^*** (1.843)
R²	0.66	0.68	0.85	0.32	0.79	0.76	0.28
A-P F statistic	22.04	22.95	22.95	22.95	22.95	22.95	17.81

Panel C: Lower secondary or less (9 or less)
Sex ratio (men/women)	−0.297^*** (0.065)	−0.235^*** (0.081)	−0.325^*** (0.060)	0.046^*** (0.011)	0.650^*** (0.186)	0.182^*** (0.039)	5.324^* (2.912)
R²	0.86	0.84	0.89	0.76	0.86	0.82	0.69
A-P F statistic	56.16	56.16	56.16	56.16	56.16	56.16	29.44

Average Schooling by Job Type

Year	1990	2000	2010	2015
Panel A: Years of education, mean
White collar	15.8	13.3	12.5	12.8
Blue collar	6.4	7.1	8.1	6.7

Panel B: % with lower secondary education (9 years)
White collar	27.5	11.3	16.3	15.7
Blue collar	16.1	20.1	25.9	18.0

Panel C: % with upper secondary education (12 years)
White collar	11.1	21.4	19.6	20.4
Blue collar	4.0	9.7	12.5	8.3

Panel D: % with college education (16 or more years)
White collar	32.9	39.1	33.6	38.1
Blue collar	3.0	3.6	4.8	3.6

Summary statistics

	N	Mean	Standard deviation	Minimum	Maximum
Panel A: Explanatory variables of interest
Sex ratio (men/women)	640	0.93	0.05	0.81	1.13
Predicted migration, EMIF	640	0.21	0.17	0.01	0.95
Predicted migration, ENE	640	0.23	0.21	0.01	1.14
Predicted migration, MC	640	0.21	0.17	0.01	0.84
Predicted migration, historical	640	0.17	0.26	0.00	2.08

Panel B: Labor market outcomes
Women's labor force participation (%)	640	0.35	0.12	0.05	0.62
Women in white collar jobs (%)	640	0.47	0.14	0.08	0.78
Women in “brain” jobs (%)	640	0.37	0.11	0.08	0.72
Women in male-dominated professions (%)	640	0.06	0.03	0.00	0.19
Log (average earned monthly income), women	640	7.99	0.26	7.27	8.91
Women in top 25 of income (%)	640	0.20	0.09	0.03	0.55
Weekly hours worked, for women	480	40.34	2.10	32.11	56.55

Panel C: Other outcomes
Women in blue collar jobs (%)	640	0.53	0.14	0.22	0.92
Women in “brawn” jobs (%)	640	0.63	0.11	0.28	0.89
Years of schooling, women	640	8.00	2.43	1.57	12.98
Lower secondary educated women (%)	640	0.21	0.09	0.01	0.44
Upper secondary educated women (%)	640	0.11	0.07	0.002	0.29
College-educated women (%)	640	0.09	0.06	0.00	0.34
Never married women (%)	640	0.20	0.17	0.02	0.72