Double Jeopardy: How Refugees Fare in One European Labor Market

Figures & Tables

Period	Work regime (in general)
January 1, 1999–March 31, 2003	Asylum seekers can work with work permit B
April 1, 2003–May 31, 2007	Admissible asylum seekers can work with work permit C
June 1, 2007–January 11, 2010	Asylum seekers can work if no negative decision 6 months after asylum application with work permit C
January 12, 2011–December 31, 2014	Asylum seekers can work if no negative decision 6 months after asylum application with work permit C, but asylum seekers who work need to contribute to the cost of the reception center
	Asylum seekers who have substantially secure income from employment need to leave the reception center

	(1) ALL	(2) UNEMP	(3) SA	(4) Other
Constant	0.78	0.04***	0.02*	0.82
Specification of hazard
Linear specification of time	1.02***	0.94***	0.97	1.03***
Natural logarithm of time	0.47***	1.32*	0.34***	0.40***
Comparison group (labor is ref. category)
Family	1.40***	1.36**	0.84	1.47***
Refugee	1.77***	3.15***	5.03***	0.72*
Sex (female is ref. category)
Male	0.83***	0.85*	1.10	0.81**
Age at arrival
Age	0.92***	0.95	0.94	0.90***
Age squared	1.00**	1.00	1.00	1.00**
Highest level of education(low is ref. category)
Medium	0.82***	0.75**	0.70*	0.86**
High	0.68***	0.49***	0.43***	0.78***
Region of residence(Brussels is ref. category)
Flanders	1.10*	0.95	0.78*	1.18**
Wallonia	1.14**	1.45***	1.38*	1.04
Region of origin (EU is ref. category)
Europe non-EU	1.40***	1.72**	3.40***	1.29*
Turkey and North Africa	1.74***	3.00***	3.51***	1.40***
Sub-Saharan Africa	1.97***	1.95***	7.47***	1.70***
Asia	1.48***	0.87	5.04***	1.48***
America	1.03	0.57	1.61	1.11

N	6,305	6,305	6,305	6,305

	(1) Low skill job	(2) Over qualification	(3) Bad job	(4) Ln (earn)
(Native-born = ref. category)
Labor	1.81***	1.86***	0.98	-0.17***
Family	4.45***	5.58***	2.03***	-0.56***
Refugee	4.65***	7.61***	2.38**	-0.85***

N	22,835	18,192	22,983	14,776

	Refugees	Family migrants	Labor migrants	Native-born
Sex
Female	43.5	65.8	38.2	49.2
Male	56.5	34.2	61.8	50.8
Age at arrival (mean)	29.6	30.1	31.6
Highest level of education
Low	52.4	44.5	28.5	27.3
Medium	28.9	29.8	32.2	37.5
High	18.7	25.7	39.3	35.2
Region of residence
Brussels	23.6	33.6	40.5	5.7
Flanders	53.4	43.0	41.4	62.5
Wallonia	23.0	23.4	18.0	31.8
Region of origin
EU	1.5	25.7	75.8
Europe non-EU	30.6	7.4	3.0
Turkey and North Africa	7.2	39.2	9.4
Sub-Saharan Africa	33.4	10.4	5.0
Asia	26.7	11.7	4.2
USA	0.6	5.5	2.6
Year of arrival
1999	6.1	3.6	5.6
2000	3.9	4.8	6.7
2001	5.6	6.2	6.8
2002	12.6	7.8	8.3
2003	9.8	9.8	9.0
2004	12.4	12.9	10.5
2005	14.1	15.6	13.7
2006	11.2	14.8	13.7
2007	14.7	12.8	12.0
2008	6.8	8.8	8.3
2009	2.8	2.9	5.4
Survey year
2008	11.7	12.4	12.8	20.2
2009	14.4	16.6	16.4	20.2
2010	19.2	20.6	20.3	20.2
2011	24.5	25.8	25.2	19.9
2012	30.2	24.6	25.4	19.5

N	401	4,383	3,387	20,920

	(1) Refugee ad hoc	(2) Non-EU origin	(3) Home country education	(4) Entry cohort 2003–2009
(Labor = ref. category)
Family	0.34***	0.46***	0.31***	0.29***
Refugee	0.26***	0.17***	0.013***	0.11***
Family*time	1.02	1.00	1.03***	1.04***
Refugee*time	1.07**	1.07***	1.10***	1.12***

N	458	4,348	7,671	6,451