Table 1a
Characteristics of children by migration status of parents (year 2000)
| (1) Full sample | (2) Neither parent migrated | (3) One parent migrated | |
|---|---|---|---|
| HAZ | −0.65 (1.65) | −0.67 (1.63) | −0.41 (1.81) |
| WAZ | −1.05 (1.63) | −1.07 (1.62) | −0.92 (1.69) |
| Male | 0.52 (0.50) | 0.53 (0.50) | 0.48 (0.50) |
| Age (years) | 3.90 (2.14) | 3.98 (2.13) | 3.21 (2.15) |
| Father’s years of schooling | 7.78 (3.81) | 7.71 (3.81) | 8.41 (3.75) |
| Mother’s years of schooling | 7.28 (3.57) | 7.21 (3.53) | 7.93 (3.86) |
| Monthly household expenditure | 15,5760.60 | 15,4960.55 | 16,3487.31 |
| per capita | (198183.86) | (202018.83) | (156480.69) |
| Urban | 0.42 (0.49) | 0.42 (0.49) | 0.39 (0.49) |
| Observations | 2,841 | 2,573 | 268 |
[i] Notes: Sample consists of children from the 2000 wave of the Indonesia Family Life Survey.
HAZ, height-for-age Z-scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z-scores.
Source: Author’s calculation based on Indonesia Family Life Survey microdata.
Table 1b
Characteristics of children by migration status of parents (year 2007)
| (1) Full sample | (2) Neither parent migrated | (3) One parent migrated | |
|---|---|---|---|
| HAZ | −1.21 (1.18) | −1.20 (1.18) | −1.43 (1.17) |
| WAZ | −1.11 (1.36) | −1.09 (1.36) | −1.36 (1.28) |
| Male | 0.52 (0.50) | 0.52 (0.50) | 0.53 (0.50) |
| Age (years) | 11.27 (2.24) | 11.25 (2.24) | 11.56 (2.19) |
| Father’s years of schooling | 7.52 (3.86) | 7.61 (3.86) | 6.43 (3.66) |
| Mother’s years of schooling | 6.98 (3.66) | 7.12 (3.67) | 5.01 (2.98) |
| Per capita monthly household | 3,52,422.43 | 3,58,573.25 | 2,61,259.84 |
| expenditure (rupiah) | (3,50,356.01) | (3,58,271.27) | (1,75,927.17) |
| Urban | 0.45 (0.50) | 0.46 (0.50) | 0.36 (0.48) |
| Observations | 2,841 | 2,662 | 179 |
[i] Notes: Sample consists of children from the 2007 wave of the Indonesia Family Life Survey.
HAZ, height-for-age Z-scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z-scores.
Source: Author’s calculation based on Indonesia Family Life Survey microdata.
Table 2a
Health of children by sex (year 2000)
| (1) Female Mean | SD | (2) Male Mean | SD | (3) Difference | P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HAZ | −0.69 | 1.61 | −0.62 | 1.68 | −0.07 | 0.25 |
| WAZ | −1.08 | 1.58 | −1.02 | 1.67 | −0.06 | 0.34 |
| Observations | 1,353 | 1,488 | 2,841 | |||
[i] Notes: Sample consists of children from the 2000 wave of the Indonesia Family Life Survey.
HAZ, height-for-age Z-scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z-scores; SD, standard deviation.
Source: Author’s calculation based on Indonesia Family Life Survey microdata.
Table 2b
Health of children by sex (year 2007)
| (1) Female Mean | SD | (2) Male Mean | SD | (3) Difference | P value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HAZ | −1.22 | 1.12 | −1.20 | 1.24 | −0.02 | 0.70 |
| WAZ | −1.01 | 1.27 | −1.20 | 1.42 | 0.19 | 0.00 |
| Observations | 1,353 | 1,488 | 2,841 | |||
[i] Notes: Sample consists of children from the 2007 wave of the Indonesia Family Life Survey.
HAZ, height-for-age Z-scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z-scores; SD, standard deviation.
Source: Author’s calculation based on Indonesia Family Life Survey microdata.
Table 3
Main regression results
| (1) HAZ | (2) HAZ | (3) WAZ | (4) WAZ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mother migrated for work | −0.49** (0.20) | −0.37* (0.20) | −0.25 (0.24) | −0.03 (0.19) |
| Father migrated for work | 0.04 (0.15) | 0.19 (0.14) | −0.05 (0.16) | 0.05 (0.12) |
| Age (years) | −1.01*** (0.06) | −0.69*** (0.07) | ||
| Log age | −1.00*** (0.10) | −0.48*** (0.10) | ||
| Mother’s years of schooling | ||||
| 1–3 | 0.09 (0.15) | 0.30** (0.14) | 0.37* (0.22) | 0.52** (0.23) |
| 4–6 | 0.00 (0.18) | 0.20 (0.18) | 0.43 (0.27) | 0.59** (0.27) |
| 7–9 | −0.00 (0.30) | 0.32 (0.26) | 0.35 (0.39) | 0.58* (0.33) |
| 10–12 | 0.44 (0.41) | 0.30 (0.43) | 0.54 (0.50) | 0.32 (0.47) |
| >12 | 0.23 (0.48) | 0.10 (0.47) | 0.02 (0.56) | −0.18 (0.51) |
| Father’s years of schooling | ||||
| 1–3 | 0.07 (0.37) | 0.29 (0.32) | −0.17 (0.37) | −0.03 (0.21) |
| 4–6 | 0.09 (0.38) | 0.35 (0.33) | −0.24 (0.39) | −0.13 (0.21) |
| 7–9 | 0.34 (0.41) | 0.56 (0.36) | −0.11 (0.44) | −0.17 (0.25) |
| 10–12 | 0.09 (0.43) | 0.20 (0.39) | −0.21 (0.46) | −0.30 (0.30) |
| >12 | −0.31 (0.46) | −0.24 (0.43) | −0.23 (0.48) | −0.39 (0.33) |
| Log per capita monthly household expenditure | −0.04 (0.06) | −0.01 (0.05) | −0.03 (0.07) | 0.02 (0.06) |
| Urban | 0.15 (0.14) | −0.01 (0.14) | 0.28 (0.20) | 0.15 (0.19) |
| Year, 2007 | 7.04*** (0.45) | 0.78*** (0.11) | 5.15*** (0.50) | 0.73*** (0.12) |
| Observations | 3,140 | 3,064 | 3,140 | 3,064 |
| R-squared | 0.2625 | 0.2073 | 0.0730 | 0.0601 |
[i] Notes: *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, and * significant at 10%. Standard errors are robust to clustering at the household level. Regressions include child and household fixed effects. The omitted category for years of schooling is 0 to 1 years. Household expenditure is the sum of expenses on food, nonfood items (durable and nondurable), and education, as reported by a female respondent, either the spouse of the household head or another person most knowledgeable about household affairs. HAZ, height-for-age Z-scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z-scores.
Source: Author’s calculation based on Indonesia Family Life Survey microdata.
Table 4
Uncontrolled regression results
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| HAZ | HAZ | WAZ | WAZ | |
| Mother migrated for work | 0.19 (0.17) | 0.38** (0.16) | ||
| Father migrated for work | 0.36*** (0.11) | 0.05 (0.11) | ||
| Observations | 5,682 | 5,682 | 5,682 | 5,682 |
| R-squared | 0.0006 | 0.0049 | 0.0026 | 0.0001 |
[i] Notes: *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, and* significant at 10%. Standard errors are robust to clustering at the household level. Regressions do not include any controls. HAZ, height-for-age Z-scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z-scores.
Source: Author’s calculation based on Indonesia Family Life Survey microdata.
Table 5
Selective attrition
| Attrited in 2007 | |
|---|---|
| HAZ | −0.002 (0.004) |
| WAZ | −0.002 (0.004) |
| Father migrated for work | 0.014 (0.021) |
| Mother migrated for work | 0.091* (0.048) |
| Age (years) | −0.007*** (0.002) |
| Mother’s years of schooling | |
| 1–3 | 0.004 (0.008) |
| 4–6 | 0.025** (0.010) |
| 7–9 | 0.024* (0.013) |
| 10–12 | 0.051*** (0.017) |
| >12 | 0.026 (0.020) |
| Father’s years of schooling | |
| 1–3 | 0.022* (0.011) |
| 4–6 | 0.035*** (0.012) |
| 7–9 | 0.025* (0.014) |
| 10–12 | 0.023 (0.015) |
| >12 | −0.000 (0.016) |
| Log per capita monthly household expenditure | 0.007 (0.005) |
| Urban | −0.000 (0.008) |
| Constant | −0.090 (0.062) |
| Observations | 1804 |
[i] Notes: *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, and * significant at 10%. Explanatory variables are from the 2000 wave of the Indonesia Family Life Survey. HAZ, height-for-age Z-scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z-scores.
Source: Author’s calculation based on Indonesia Family Life Survey microdata.
Table 6
Do parental migration coefficients vary by sex of child?
| (1) HAZ | (2) WAZ | |
|---|---|---|
| Mother migrated for work | −0.48* (0.26) | −0.26 (0.36) |
| Mother migrated for work × male | −0.06 (0.39) | −0.01 (0.44) |
| Father migrated for work | −0.23 (0.16) | −0.22 (0.18) |
| Father migrated for work × male | 0.63* (0.34) | 0.39 (0.33) |
| Age (years) | −1.01*** (0.06) | −0.69*** (0.07) |
| Mother’s years of schooling: | ||
| 1–3 | 0.11 (0.16) | 0.38* (0.22) |
| 4–6 | 0.02 (0.18) | 0.45* (0.27) |
| 7–9 | 0.02 (0.31) | 0.36 (0.39) |
| 10–12 | 0.48 (0.41) | 0.56 (0.50) |
| >12 | 0.26 (0.49) | 0.05 (0.56) |
| Father’s years of schooling: | ||
| 1–3 | 0.07 (0.36) | −0.17 (0.36) |
| 4–6 | 0.08 (0.38) | −0.24 (0.39) |
| 7–9 | 0.34 (0.40) | −0.11 (0.44) |
| 10–12 | 0.11 (0.43) | −0.19 (0.45) |
| >12 | −0.27 (0.46) | −0.21 (0.47) |
| Log per capita monthly household expenditure | −0.04 (0.06) | −0.02 (0.07) |
| Urban | 0.14 (0.14) | 0.28 (0.20) |
| Year = 2007 | 7.03*** (0.45) | 5.15*** (0.51) |
| Observations | 3,140 | 3,140 |
| R-squared | 0.2660 | 0.0743 |
[i] Notes: *** significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, and * significant at 10%. Standard errors are robust to clustering at the household level. Regressions include child and household fixed effects. The omitted category for years of schooling is 0–1 years. Household expenditure is the sum of expenses on food, nonfood items (durable and nondurable), and education, as reported by a female respondent, either the spouse of the household head or another person most knowledgeable about household affairs. HAZ, height-for-age Z-scores; WAZ, weight-for-age Z-scores.
Source: Author’s calculation based on Indonesia Family Life Survey microdata.
Table 7
Migration’s impact on consumption as a possible mechanism
| (1) Log of per capita monthly household expenditure | |
|---|---|
| Mother migrated for work | 0.06 (0.09) |
| Father migrated for work | 0.16** (0.07) |
| Age (years) | 0.06* (0.03) |
| Mother’s years of schooling | |
| 1–3 | 0.13 (0.15) |
| 4–6 | 0.19 (0.16) |
| 7–9 | 0.27 (0.18) |
| 10–12 | 0.17 (0.25) |
| >12 | 0.17 (0.29) |
| Father’s years of schooling | |
| 1–3 | 0.08 (0.14) |
| 4–6 | 0.17 (0.15) |
| 7–9 | 0.15 (0.16) |
| 10–12 | 0.43** (0.18) |
| >12 | 0.51** (0.22) |
| Urban | 0.14* (0.08) |
| Year=2007 | 0.43* (0.23) |
| Observations | 3,140 |
| R-squared | 0.6860 |