Table 1.
Cybersecurity issues and proposed solutions
| Issues | Method | Solution Description | Application | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intrusion detection in vehicular environments | Game theory-based approach | Detecting intruders generally, and nearby in the Vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) environment | Vehicular ad hoc network | [22] |
| Cybersecurity, privacy, and public safety | Enhancement in functionalities of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) | Framework's overviews, followed in determining maturity at the international, regional, and national levels | Unmanned aircraft systems (UASs)/UAVs | [23] |
| Traffic issues, and smart advancement | Surveillance cameras and sensor application | Efficient connected and autonomous vehicles need to exercise caution in the context of privacy and security | UAVs | [24] |
| Nonsecure communication | Machine learning | An edge-aided secure lightweight guarantee technique for safe interaction | Internet of drones | [25] |
| Infection monitoring and facial recognition | Pandemic situations (Covid-19) | Indisputably enhances drone design | Autonomous UAV deployment | [26] |
| Cyberattacks and counterattacks at airports | UAV deployment | Installing drone-supported facilities near areas such as airports | Drone-sensing technologies | [27] |
| Precise landing | A robust spherical-object detection algorithm | Installation of a camera on the platform controls the macro drones near the landing area | A DJI Tello drone | [28] |
| Intrusion detection | Advanced machine learning | A two-stage hybrid approach to regulating attack | Internet of things (IoT) networks | [29] |
| Effectiveness, flexibility, and vigor | Bio-inspired routing | Heterogeneous UAS swarm networking | UAVs | [30] |
| UAV authentication | Deep neural networks | Proposed a federated learning-based UAV authentication approach | UAVs | [31] |
Table 2.
Distribution of the cybersecurity attack targets
| Attack | S | T | R | I | D | E |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eavesdropping | 3 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Crashing | 3 | - | - | - | 4 | - |
| Landing | 1 | - | - | - | 4 | - |
| Media or file access | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 |
| Hijacking | 6 | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - |
[i] STRIDE, spoofing, tampering, repudiation, information disclosure, denial of service (DoS), and elevation of privilege.
Table 3.
Most common attack goals
| Attack | S | T | R | I | D | E |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eavesdropping | 2 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Crash/land | 3 | - | - | - | 4 | - |
| Media or file access | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 |
| Hijacking | 5 | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - |
[i] STRIDE, spoofing, tampering, repudiation, information disclosure, denial of service (DoS), and elevation of privilege.
Table 4.
Overview of current cybersecurity attacks in the STRIDE categories
| UAV Cybersecurity | S | T | R | I | D | E |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cybersecurity 4.1 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.2.1 | - | - | - | - | - | * |
| Cybersecurity 4.2.2 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.2.3 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.2.4 | - | - | - | - | * | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.2.5 | - | - | - | - | * | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.3 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.4 | - | - | - | - | * | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.5 | - | - | - | - | * | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.6.1 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.6.2 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.6.3 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.6.4 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.6.5 | - | - | - | * | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.7.1 | - | - | - | - | * | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.7.2 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.7.3 | * | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cybersecurity 4.8 | - | * | - | - | - | - |
[i] STRIDE, spoofing, tampering, repudiation, information disclosure, denial of service (DoS), and elevation of privilege.
Table 5.
Goals and gears for any spoofing group attack and DoS
| UAV Cybersecurity Attacks | Targets | Some Gear | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Any spoofing group attack | DoS | Tampering | ||
| Attack 4.1 | Hacking | Adapter, joystick, ROS, WiFi network | - | - |
| Attack 4.2.1 | Hacking | LabSat3 global positioning system (GPS) simulator | DJI software development kit (SDK) | - |
| Attack 4.2.2 | Hacking | Unknown | - | - |
| Attack 4.2.3 | Eavesdropping | Adapter, Xbee, universal serial bus (USB) to RS232, Python interpreter | DJI SDK | - |
| Attack 4.2.4 | Eavesdropping | Xbee, Python interpreter | SDK | |
| Attack 4.2.5 | Eavesdropping | 868LP chip, Python interpreter | - | - |
| Attack 4.3 | Crashing | WiFi network adapter, virtual machine (VM) | Hping3, Network, and LOIC | - |
| Attack 4.4 | Hacking | Air-cracking | - | - |
| Attack 4.5 | Crashing | - | Telnet | - |
| Attack 4.6.1 | Landing | Air-cracking | - | - |
| Attack 4.6.2 | Crashing | - | Air-cracking | - |
| Attack 4.6.3 | Eavesdropping | WiFi pineapple nano | - | - |
| Attack 4.6.4 | Eavesdropping | WiFi pineapple nano | - | - |
| Attack 4.6.5 | Hacking | Not specified | - | - |
| Attack 4.7.1 | Landing | Not specified | Not specified | - |
| Attack 4.7.2 | Crashing | Not specified | Not specified | - |
| Attack 4.7.3 | Crashing | Not specified | Not specified | - |
| Attack 4.8 | Hacking | Maldrone software tool | - | None Specified |