Figure 1.
![Value of world exports in the years 2009–2021 (in trillion US$).
Source: [WTO Stats, 2023].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9f7215d2f6c89db748c/j_ijme-2024-0012_fig_001.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=AKIA6AP2G7AKOUXAVR44%2F20251210%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251210T053503Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Signature=94acca77499c37c2c41abbb1db44352430a26a28cf7cfe0c3580a82caf41d0a1&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 2.
![Volume of world exports in the years 2009–2022 (previous year = 100).
Source: [WTO Stats, 2023].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9f7215d2f6c89db748c/j_ijme-2024-0012_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=AKIA6AP2G7AKOUXAVR44%2F20251210%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251210T053503Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Signature=ef925577f06b6c32a5eda1b1c8edbb2da91c507d8e0372f465c828bafdde9fea&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 3.
![Nontariff measures entered into force* in WTO countries in the years 1995–2021.
Source: own elaboration based on: WTO [2023]. NTMs include: SPS, TBT, ADP, CV, QR, TRQ, SG, and XS. Specific trade concerns—TBT and SPS not notified by the imposing country. *Measures entered into force in a given year. As of February 24, 2023. ADP, anti-dumping; CV, countervailing; QR, quantitative restrictions; SG, safeguards and special safeguards; SPS, sanitary and phytosanitary standards; TBT, technical barriers; TRQ, tariff-rate quotas; XS, export subsidies.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9f7215d2f6c89db748c/j_ijme-2024-0012_fig_003.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=AKIA6AP2G7AKOUXAVR44%2F20251210%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251210T053503Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Signature=d31d799cc94e6b9120fc93bde0a27b331928d60087e1236f88fb50d74b2400b1&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 4.
![Structure of NTMs entered into force in WTO members in the years 2009–2021.
Source: own elaboration based on: WTO [2023]. ADP, anti-dumping; CV, countervailing; QR, quantitative restrictions; SG, safeguards and special safeguards; SPS, sanitary and phytosanitary standards; TBT, technical barriers; TRQ, tariff-rate quotas; WTO, World Trade Organization.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9f7215d2f6c89db748c/j_ijme-2024-0012_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=AKIA6AP2G7AKOUXAVR44%2F20251210%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251210T053503Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Signature=55836f6f1dcf2ef3843bd1b115bd4395fff1c851dc7dc9fc18387f03fe649f19&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 5.
![World trade under import restrictions in the years 2009–2021*.
Source: WTO [2020, 2021a, 2022], [WTO Stats, 2023]. *The data as of the end of the third quarter.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9f7215d2f6c89db748c/j_ijme-2024-0012_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=AKIA6AP2G7AKOUXAVR44%2F20251210%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251210T053503Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Signature=7a0e7b2749489db2e578bf28c8a0491839fb3ff601fa1a6622e564dc5e73064d&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 6.
![Value* of world trade under import restrictions and facilitations introduced in the years 2012–2021 (in US$ billion). *Value of trade subject to new measures introduced in a given period.
Source: WTO [2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019a, 2020, 2021a, 2022].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9f7215d2f6c89db748c/j_ijme-2024-0012_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=AKIA6AP2G7AKOUXAVR44%2F20251210%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251210T053503Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Signature=1f7395cfe74f7dafe6edd3e87683cbf3379bf3f166318fd29dd37318ec7b7d8d&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 7.
![Value of world trade under nontariff measures* introduced in the years 2012–2020 (in US$ billion). *Value of trade subject to new measures introduced in a given period. Applies to measures: ADP, CV, and safeguards.
Source: WTO [2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019a, 2020, 2021a]. ADP, anti-dumping. CV, countervailing.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9f7215d2f6c89db748c/j_ijme-2024-0012_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=AKIA6AP2G7AKOUXAVR44%2F20251210%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20251210T053503Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Signature=17569026184d6c07e2327cf2b82ee1ae7f000c9d0f394c537eadfdfac2efbc01&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Number of notifications on SPS, CV measures, and TBT reported by WTO members in 2005–2021
| Years | SPS | CV | TBT |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2005 | 856 | 6 | 897 |
| 2006 | 1,156 | 8 | 1,030 |
| 2007 | 1,196 | 11 | 1,229 |
| 2008 | 1,264 | 16 | 1,523 |
| 2009 | 1,019 | 28 | 1,893 |
| 2010 | 1,408 | 9 | 1,869 |
| 2011 | 1,391 | 25 | 1,773 |
| 2012 | 1,219 | 23 | 2,195 |
| 2013 | 1,299 | 33 | 2,140 |
| 2014 | 1,634 | 45 | 2,240 |
| 2015 | 1,681 | 31 | 1,977 |
| 2016 | 1,392 | 34 | 2,331 |
| 2017 | 1,479 | 41 | 2,580 |
| 2018 | 1,631 | 55 | 3,061 |
| 2019 | 1,757 | 36 | 3,337 |
| 2020 | 2,122 | 27 | 3,354 |
| 2021 | 1,825 | 11 | 3,966 |
Applied average tariffs (MFN)* in years 2017–2021
| Tariffs (%) | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of countries | In% | Number of countries | In% | Number of countries | In% | Number of countries | In% | Number of countries | In% | |
| 0.0–5.0 | 24 | 20.5 | 23 | 19.5 | 26 | 20.0 | 18 | 20.0 | 28 | 20.4 |
| 5.1–10.0 | 50 | 42.7 | 50 | 42.4 | 48 | 36.9 | 36 | 40.0 | 55 | 40.1 |
| 10.1–15.0 | 37 | 31.6 | 39 | 33.1 | 48 | 36.9 | 34 | 37.8 | 47 | 34.3 |
| Above 15.0 | 6 | 5.1 | 6 | 5.1 | 8 | 6.2 | 2 | 2.2 | 7 | 5.1 |
| Total | 117 | 100.0 | 118 | 100.0 | 130 | 100.0 | 90 | 100.0 | 137 | 100.0 |
NTMs entered into force in WTO countries in the years 2009–2021 by types
| Years | SPS | SPS STCs | TBT | TBT STCs | ADP | CV | QR | TRQ | SG |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2009 | 313 | 13 | 254 | 46 | 155 | 9 | 500 | 3 | 128 |
| 2010 | 418 | 22 | 291 | 29 | 138 | 19 | 487 | 0 | 77 |
| 2011 | 361 | 16 | 225 | 43 | 104 | 10 | 453 | 0 | 86 |
| 2012 | 345 | 16 | 236 | 35 | 130 | 10 | 443 | 2 | 87 |
| 2013 | 346 | 24 | 206 | 42 | 180 | 13 | 66 | 4 | 44 |
| 2014 | 369 | 14 | 194 | 46 | 165 | 12 | 31 | 15 | 40 |
| 2015 | 287 | 21 | 471 | 37 | 193 | 14 | 12 | 0 | 21 |
| 2016 | 328 | 14 | 458 | 31 | 187 | 26 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
| 2017 | 114 | 17 | 224 | 26 | 190 | 18 | 0 | 0 | 9 |
| 2018 | 3 | 18 | 113 | 22 | 210 | 28 | 0 | 0 | 12 |
| 2019 | 0 | 17 | 143 | 34 | 164 | 35 | 0 | 0 | 21 |
| 2020 | 0 | 36 | 161 | 57 | 108 | 24 | 0 | 0 | 13 |
| 2021 | 0 | 27 | 297 | 56 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 |