Figure 1
![Backward participation index, in %, in 2005–2016.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_001.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=e53fcd45bd1b1e97c6c0f043860d3a808f59f05937b32cfab11aaed5e13c146e&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 2
![Export orientation index in OECD, EU26, and Poland, in %, in 2005 and 2016.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. EU, European Union; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=5349e90038a4ea476330a1a260671d4ee3721945611ca13827add587dc65f0f5&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 3
![Foreign value-added content of gross exports, as a percent of industry gross exports, by industry, in 2005 and 2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. EU, European Union; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_003.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=c2418af752b92dc78e1e8ada55edc554e8a2edff47bb3f02698641d1bdd7cf75&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 4
![Intensity index of domestic and FVA in industry's exports, in %, in 2005 and 2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. DVA, Domestic value added; FVA, Foreign value added; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=1779c2b58eb9f58d6a48c8db8f1e5846173d0f05f3730deb4632f9962df0c070&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 5
![Export and import, by major trading partners, as a share in gross exports and imports and as a share in exports and imports of value added, in 2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=1728f85da83228fae1707373c790b7df0fa4d57a27db64cb50e684f58d14acdb&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 6
![Position index in GVC in OECD, EU26, and Poland, in 2005 and 2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. EU, European Union; GVC, Global value chains; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=52e9dc63f2d005bfee401455f9ac8a4619a2d2bda9b986426c06b0c85cbe4ca5&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 7
![Import and export of goods for selected economies, growth rate Y/Y-1 in %, in 2004–2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: July 01, 2021]. EU, European Union; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=b58ac49295e4a36128624a354fcb0f84b6400ae36ed56a3dd4c0993ee81c33fb&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 8
![Import and export of goods for selected economies in 2020, growth rate M/M-12 in %.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: July 01, 2021]. EU, European Union; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_008.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=3c489c77c7c362354389f795c31b4a096338e18c7fb293d29763c078c8409f00&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Backward participation index, in %, in 2005–2016.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_001.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=e53fcd45bd1b1e97c6c0f043860d3a808f59f05937b32cfab11aaed5e13c146e&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Export orientation index in OECD, EU26, and Poland, in %, in 2005 and 2016.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. EU, European Union; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=5349e90038a4ea476330a1a260671d4ee3721945611ca13827add587dc65f0f5&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Foreign value-added content of gross exports, as a percent of industry gross exports, by industry, in 2005 and 2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. EU, European Union; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_003.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=c2418af752b92dc78e1e8ada55edc554e8a2edff47bb3f02698641d1bdd7cf75&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Intensity index of domestic and FVA in industry's exports, in %, in 2005 and 2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. DVA, Domestic value added; FVA, Foreign value added; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=1779c2b58eb9f58d6a48c8db8f1e5846173d0f05f3730deb4632f9962df0c070&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Export and import, by major trading partners, as a share in gross exports and imports and as a share in exports and imports of value added, in 2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=1728f85da83228fae1707373c790b7df0fa4d57a27db64cb50e684f58d14acdb&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Position index in GVC in OECD, EU26, and Poland, in 2005 and 2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: May 11, 2021]. EU, European Union; GVC, Global value chains; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=52e9dc63f2d005bfee401455f9ac8a4619a2d2bda9b986426c06b0c85cbe4ca5&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Import and export of goods for selected economies, growth rate Y/Y-1 in %, in 2004–2015.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: July 01, 2021]. EU, European Union; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=b58ac49295e4a36128624a354fcb0f84b6400ae36ed56a3dd4c0993ee81c33fb&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Import and export of goods for selected economies in 2020, growth rate M/M-12 in %.Source: Own study based on TiVA data, www.oe.cd/tiva [access: July 01, 2021]. EU, European Union; TiVA, Trade in value added.](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f9cf215d2f6c89db7444/j_ijme-2022-0004_fig_008.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKH73ILKSZ%2F20260220%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260220T004557Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEL%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIDd8oPR8wWjKXVIO3k42LuX1OJVmUFvcFoigskBmjdJmAiEAkNoyg3IlgsXrRF1fybmFsTLhL9hLjRhmN72fz3%2Fc40QqxAUIiP%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDPS%2BYmUXCmYo%2F9X87CqYBUf5uGGpMrDKw63iSbr9MZeZ3xAC6HNs3cufs1M%2BMduSQT4R4OL2VuyPoqpuQPOfH1RNMY9vlAGPs3C0rvn69PHdq0LFzsBpaPBXwWnGjLqp5jD0yDThbnbIantll%2B7Wi2JQC6cHKTxEwEkSfU%2BEW%2BPm1JG1hyLOKTTvBfktQzLAZ73X%2F3mNUO4LPgs94yByNZfjAuEAZ1UlS80nqBIOtyBcpjCqOH08WfHSXo7ze%2B1k%2F52zJFEWVfRNrb02j68nzy7tYEgmJoJkaVSQ1e66Jdb%2BoeLlJbwMBU60yY0aqqybGlbIt5xHm0cGC0VTgdbFrjbe5s4gbtGe94e9KHGc%2BmIDCUnRMKI2TEylFpLVA1ZOeiG4B75i9d21bNhZoYIv3cI50T7Bv9b%2BN30HZm7U2oJqsx3yRgJHwSJ6OhSGvLYvdfMI7Hf%2B2UE1Q%2FKI2tBMu%2FJ8YMl6uZDrY7kL%2BwAH0%2FfDs5vNHc8ipiEXgMMAeDAppNuc39pxatIIUZRaCPDlcQNNGZ1KnVp1MoahyFUrZ4nr1I8h8FBBS%2BL3AEN2%2F68TLIvNeNqsQ%2B15Z5wkpuhZeKYiF%2BnA%2Fy8D8VHPPm9W0VIbLPOkrC3oPxht2jyfcu0iEii1z0MdOHI1%2BjIt3o8gZu%2BP7GjWtbK24gxy%2BA2BZP0D77G0sgLZUNU2SqEIuZWes3j%2BkwMA49zcyLudWZCU397n5ENuKuRfP4XZcmixl4mH%2BhKk4lyIQ0p3M7GSJANcU3M3u2YGHmHxn%2FQ1cyExePasgtQJAsXaSdV9ixb5wA85f0OsWbQrT6oxr4DLseh9PASkiaS9nRwqVkaXovtA8uY6o9CxA5yxIL0%2F7qA2lTI9A9ZbEfSZWn9wwZJcAbuEcej4qYJ%2BcB8w6ajezAY6sQH7vZ5wN%2F%2F02LX86gkr8s3zv6EN%2FyF4rWbYHnRIIXW5XTT%2BdPhYo49k%2FCjLSXvxQ2xhVxgXYjo4LdNO2vhIUMdnNOLYl249ciWBJe1mvM6UwGlCiJJLh15o9R%2BUl%2FQxl0TnwReb%2BE9uSAZxUsT%2Bt6TqbxIjMqEmL7J2TO53zRcuhUdQaRM4S%2FQdTLJm4%2FXP%2FzmMa6AKefqaq9PGR46iky2n%2FYDga5qfXU6kNrnU4NMP%2B9A%3D&X-Amz-Signature=3c489c77c7c362354389f795c31b4a096338e18c7fb293d29763c078c8409f00&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
© 2022 Aleksandra Nacewska-Twardowska, published by Warsaw School of Economics
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