The EU's regional trade agreements: How the EU addresses challenges related to digital transformation

Slok-Wodkowska, Magdalena; Mazur, Joanna

doi:10.2478/ijme-2021-0009

Figures & Tables

Digital STRI

Year	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020
Country
Australia – negotiating	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083
Austria	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.202	0.202	0.202	0.202
Belgium	0.162	0.162	0.162	0.162	0.162	0.162	0.162
Canada – new type of RTA	0.162	0.043	0.043	0.043	0.043	0.043	0.043
Chile – old type of RTA	0.263	0.263	0.263	0.263	0.263	0.263	0.263
Colombia – old type of RTA	0.299	0.299	0.299	0.299	0.299	0.299	0.299
The Czech Republic	0.141	0.141	0.141	0.141	0.141	0.141	0.141
Denmark	0.144	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104
Estonia	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083
Finland	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101
France	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123
Germany	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144
Greece	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144
Hungary	0.166	0.166	0.166	0.166	0.166	0.166	0.166
Iceland	0.148	0.148	0.148	0.267	0.267	0.267	0.267
Ireland	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144
Israel – old type of RTA	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.18
Italy	0.126	0.126	0.126	0.126	0.126	0.126	0.126
Japan – new type of RTA	0.064	0.064	0.064	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104
Korea – new type of RTA	0.141	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.145	0.145
Latvia	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.223	0.223	0.223	0.223
Lithuania	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104
Luxembourg	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083
Mexico – agreement in principle and old type of RTA in force	0.3	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101
The Netherlands	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104	0.104
New Zealand – negotiating	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.18
Norway	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.061	0.061	0.061
Poland	0.184	0.144	0.263	0.263	0.263	0.263	0.263
Portugal	0.184	0.145	0.145	0.145	0.145	0.145	0.145
The Slovak Republic	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.101	0.141
Slovenia	0.104	0.104	0.083	0.083	0.242	0.242	0.242
Spain	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123	0.123
Sweden	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144	0.144
Switzerland	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083
Turkey – old type of RTA	0.083	0.163	0.202	0.202	0.202	0.264	0.264
The United Kingdom	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083
The United States	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083	0.083
Non-OECD economies
Argentina – agreement in principle	0.361	0.34	0.281	0.281	0.321	0.321	0.34
Brazil	0.227	0.227	0.267	0.267	0.267	0.267	0.245
China (People's Republic of)	0.488	0.488	0.51	0.51	0.51	0.51	0.51
Costa Rica – old type of RTA	0.043	0.043	0.043	0.043	0.043	0.043	0.043
India	0.239	0.239	0.304	0.304	0.343	0.343	0.343
Indonesia	0.307	0.307	0.307	0.307	0.307	0.307	0.227
Kazakhstan	0.228	0.228	0.268	0.506	0.567	0.647	0.647
Malaysia	0.126	0.126	0.126	0.126	0.126	0.126	0.126
Peru	0.242	0.242	0.242	0.242	0.242	0.242	0.242
Russia	0.241	0.281	0.281	0.3	0.3	0.319	0.341
Saudi Arabia	0.206	0.206	0.206	0.206	0.386	0.386	0.405
South Africa – old type of RTA	0.342	0.342	0.342	0.342	0.342	0.342	0.342
Thailand	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3

Enterprises engaged in electronic sales

Country	Indicator: Enterprises having done electronic sales in their own country	Indicator: Enterprises having done electronic sales to other EU countries	Indicator: Enterprises having done electronic sales to the rest of the world
Austria	23.91	15.14	8.77
Belgium	29.49	16.10	7.15
Bulgaria	10.32	3.29	1.94
Cyprus	12.95	8.83	7.08
The Czech Republic	29.14	16.10	5.48
Germany	18.68	10.29	4.88
Denmark	31.98	11.01	6.87
Estonia	20.19	9.75	5.00
Greece	10.93	4.16	2.90
Spain	20.58	7.70	4.72
Finland	27.58	9.11	5.15
France	18.66	6.72	4.32
Croatia	19.59	10.51	7.51
Hungary	14.45	5.68	2.55
Ireland	38.38	18.36	12.42
Italy	13.71	6.66	4.56
Lithuania	24.13	13.10	7.05
Luxembourg	11.75	8.46	2.89
Latvia	12.85	6.77	4.06
Malta	22.07	13.21	9.67
The Netherlands	26.49	13.44	5.37
Poland	15.41	5.90	3.01
Portugal	16.47	8.32	6.40
Romania	10.39	6.07	1.65
Sweden	31.89	10.78	7.19
Slovenia	21.99	13.05	5.39
Slovakia	14.37	7.28	2.49
The United Kingdom	25.60	8.37	6.20

Comparison of the various categorizations of obstacles to digital trade

Digital STRI	OECD – conceptual framework	European Commission

Areas of regulation in which the national regulatory measures have an impact on trade in international digital services	Categorization of the obstacles for international e-commerce	Factors having impact on digital trade between the Member States
Infrastructure and connectivity	Blurring boundaries between goods and services	Differences in postal regulations and charges
Electronic transactions	Changing trends in trade of goods (e.g., direct costumers’ participation in international trade)	Regime of seller's liability for defects in goods
Payment systems	Regulatory differences in areas such as “consumer protection, contract law, labelling, logistics and distribution systems, taxation and technical specifications such as interoperability of payment systems”	Differences in the law of contracts
Intellectual property rights	Growing importance of regulatory measures concerning data (e.g., data location requirements, data transfer requirements, online censorship, data protection regulation)	Problems in pursuing claims
Other barriers affecting trade in digitally enabled services	Economic factors typical for digital dimensions	Copyright terms
	Integration of digital technologies by SMEs	Privacy protection requirementsCreation and operation of service infrastructureDifferences in technical standardsAspect of payment for goods or for service

The EU's regional trade agreements: How the EU addresses challenges related to digital transformation

Figures & Tables

Digital STRI

Enterprises engaged in electronic sales

Comparison of the various categorizations of obstacles to digital trade

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