Figure 1
![Trends in the real GDP growth rate in Japan (%).Source:Fukao et al. [2015, p. 15].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f948215d2f6c89db738c/j_ijme-2019-0018_fig_001.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKL2W7GT56%2F20260129%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260129T212251Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQC%2B%2F5F4pTYTKYgnUSDssWhHkVEEzY%2BtLncQ9pwDDKg2jQIhANEnNDoEZY%2FbC1n7pO%2BcHiAxx2lrk3zeouONbKjKVuEaKsUFCI7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgz5%2F4CH2bFkOoeur34qmQVbZvr5iQfwugOWvipggAZ1Ie849OW0OCo%2F8%2BSEPe2rVweyfDXo%2B8WzPvthwndNYnWaZPdfPUdAQdKkcgTAJuKPBuSfSabN7bYGLbs9L9vBUiV28hTMgt8VkRNhHw1eGJzcE291KlU1GvC18spK%2FY9HZ%2BgyZmSwVVgDGOSJvHXxYd9qVpDD%2FvvH6wxoPUvIbSRr4UZks02aFNdHvVrc%2FVRJloL4FQ1if9WWu5QwMQM3dSWXKDx5lz95CP3EdpJi%2FhoaLYacHH2pWRoj%2B4%2FucLoPRU4OqsaGBmyxMGqyqZEp5T61tK9%2BUQK9vU3gyNoPoneGhJgtQ9tKTSEhyxBQmI4CsNS3Ee8fbdg1WsNGulTv1SdcAYQQzxrezGc%2BpYsjeyOazmLawemuxbnwtxbWkCRKTAdUJ3Tfv0BskuKDcM8huFaPP7ytD3ItwgbHfLjdf6C6lUuZqi3AUVK4ET2%2BGBNYUqbOpzNUwgN8yQOx%2FsI6kyeq69ky4lnCSL19gCE%2BWI91Rx%2BgckrqPbd8jU1a6DEF5pShU3O1V4A0jYoMIBTYOJm4g2GX8uQ8qA8QYUavflGR%2BzB7fZTRlMppQoCDciGWEyBsgHVGPVbhZvOGObeR9FV85aFylayDrt2w7OJAQz2cPjZ0Lr6VeK78DJdSBijUyW7clQE%2BZGK7ymPEmYi2P6sdNAWQ6BdXwCOuHDOvT%2Bk5mndOmrlTxFK0wusSQxdEye%2BPFlHo6Y4E3g6ekYQGMFa3WozlsofFv1i44BVNytCjB38YQWK0FWgIQZhdw1S2g4Chf2Es37FoIuXQyTdnSudoxlLqjeLzV7DubM8KvZeanPGIOFcSoJ93Px6frUff0lY9M6TeUo%2BJaEATNAW50bMygr2mkuWUljDAhe%2FLBjqwAaPBVrY8tlgEJ8uqNfNMi64fuBkygTtZYQ17HncVDeoMwli%2F0E1HzBYWW857LSEVyOhxyM%2BtIetyrK%2BxxmuQnSMVSAA%2BkOzKxVQbFsmaoAIU2CqSgEaEI26jbxvRpWE2ojcYwDz%2BK7sqoCX%2F4rbI3tKf41qjPIqOgorTPXqAU1tIO5Ofmhg79PZHpjDAChpUIIHhUEHse7GjNJN32VPQBgW5yY8FIM0UQXVxiarfMY7o&X-Amz-Signature=15514147d664ed27c6bb6e81dad1e76486fe23d6afd6d5876869fe1559da81c7&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 2
![The ratio of the elderly population in major countries (%).Note: The elderly population (aged 65 or over) divided by the productive population (age 15–64).Source: [UN, DESA].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f948215d2f6c89db738c/j_ijme-2019-0018_fig_002.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKL2W7GT56%2F20260129%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260129T212251Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQC%2B%2F5F4pTYTKYgnUSDssWhHkVEEzY%2BtLncQ9pwDDKg2jQIhANEnNDoEZY%2FbC1n7pO%2BcHiAxx2lrk3zeouONbKjKVuEaKsUFCI7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgz5%2F4CH2bFkOoeur34qmQVbZvr5iQfwugOWvipggAZ1Ie849OW0OCo%2F8%2BSEPe2rVweyfDXo%2B8WzPvthwndNYnWaZPdfPUdAQdKkcgTAJuKPBuSfSabN7bYGLbs9L9vBUiV28hTMgt8VkRNhHw1eGJzcE291KlU1GvC18spK%2FY9HZ%2BgyZmSwVVgDGOSJvHXxYd9qVpDD%2FvvH6wxoPUvIbSRr4UZks02aFNdHvVrc%2FVRJloL4FQ1if9WWu5QwMQM3dSWXKDx5lz95CP3EdpJi%2FhoaLYacHH2pWRoj%2B4%2FucLoPRU4OqsaGBmyxMGqyqZEp5T61tK9%2BUQK9vU3gyNoPoneGhJgtQ9tKTSEhyxBQmI4CsNS3Ee8fbdg1WsNGulTv1SdcAYQQzxrezGc%2BpYsjeyOazmLawemuxbnwtxbWkCRKTAdUJ3Tfv0BskuKDcM8huFaPP7ytD3ItwgbHfLjdf6C6lUuZqi3AUVK4ET2%2BGBNYUqbOpzNUwgN8yQOx%2FsI6kyeq69ky4lnCSL19gCE%2BWI91Rx%2BgckrqPbd8jU1a6DEF5pShU3O1V4A0jYoMIBTYOJm4g2GX8uQ8qA8QYUavflGR%2BzB7fZTRlMppQoCDciGWEyBsgHVGPVbhZvOGObeR9FV85aFylayDrt2w7OJAQz2cPjZ0Lr6VeK78DJdSBijUyW7clQE%2BZGK7ymPEmYi2P6sdNAWQ6BdXwCOuHDOvT%2Bk5mndOmrlTxFK0wusSQxdEye%2BPFlHo6Y4E3g6ekYQGMFa3WozlsofFv1i44BVNytCjB38YQWK0FWgIQZhdw1S2g4Chf2Es37FoIuXQyTdnSudoxlLqjeLzV7DubM8KvZeanPGIOFcSoJ93Px6frUff0lY9M6TeUo%2BJaEATNAW50bMygr2mkuWUljDAhe%2FLBjqwAaPBVrY8tlgEJ8uqNfNMi64fuBkygTtZYQ17HncVDeoMwli%2F0E1HzBYWW857LSEVyOhxyM%2BtIetyrK%2BxxmuQnSMVSAA%2BkOzKxVQbFsmaoAIU2CqSgEaEI26jbxvRpWE2ojcYwDz%2BK7sqoCX%2F4rbI3tKf41qjPIqOgorTPXqAU1tIO5Ofmhg79PZHpjDAChpUIIHhUEHse7GjNJN32VPQBgW5yY8FIM0UQXVxiarfMY7o&X-Amz-Signature=7dca5275ced3569cb85285c37878fbd9880bf2a9935936baf285a786a41cca4d&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 3
![“Three-Arrows Strategy.”Source: MUFG [2018, p. 5].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f948215d2f6c89db738c/j_ijme-2019-0018_fig_003.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKL2W7GT56%2F20260129%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260129T212251Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQC%2B%2F5F4pTYTKYgnUSDssWhHkVEEzY%2BtLncQ9pwDDKg2jQIhANEnNDoEZY%2FbC1n7pO%2BcHiAxx2lrk3zeouONbKjKVuEaKsUFCI7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgz5%2F4CH2bFkOoeur34qmQVbZvr5iQfwugOWvipggAZ1Ie849OW0OCo%2F8%2BSEPe2rVweyfDXo%2B8WzPvthwndNYnWaZPdfPUdAQdKkcgTAJuKPBuSfSabN7bYGLbs9L9vBUiV28hTMgt8VkRNhHw1eGJzcE291KlU1GvC18spK%2FY9HZ%2BgyZmSwVVgDGOSJvHXxYd9qVpDD%2FvvH6wxoPUvIbSRr4UZks02aFNdHvVrc%2FVRJloL4FQ1if9WWu5QwMQM3dSWXKDx5lz95CP3EdpJi%2FhoaLYacHH2pWRoj%2B4%2FucLoPRU4OqsaGBmyxMGqyqZEp5T61tK9%2BUQK9vU3gyNoPoneGhJgtQ9tKTSEhyxBQmI4CsNS3Ee8fbdg1WsNGulTv1SdcAYQQzxrezGc%2BpYsjeyOazmLawemuxbnwtxbWkCRKTAdUJ3Tfv0BskuKDcM8huFaPP7ytD3ItwgbHfLjdf6C6lUuZqi3AUVK4ET2%2BGBNYUqbOpzNUwgN8yQOx%2FsI6kyeq69ky4lnCSL19gCE%2BWI91Rx%2BgckrqPbd8jU1a6DEF5pShU3O1V4A0jYoMIBTYOJm4g2GX8uQ8qA8QYUavflGR%2BzB7fZTRlMppQoCDciGWEyBsgHVGPVbhZvOGObeR9FV85aFylayDrt2w7OJAQz2cPjZ0Lr6VeK78DJdSBijUyW7clQE%2BZGK7ymPEmYi2P6sdNAWQ6BdXwCOuHDOvT%2Bk5mndOmrlTxFK0wusSQxdEye%2BPFlHo6Y4E3g6ekYQGMFa3WozlsofFv1i44BVNytCjB38YQWK0FWgIQZhdw1S2g4Chf2Es37FoIuXQyTdnSudoxlLqjeLzV7DubM8KvZeanPGIOFcSoJ93Px6frUff0lY9M6TeUo%2BJaEATNAW50bMygr2mkuWUljDAhe%2FLBjqwAaPBVrY8tlgEJ8uqNfNMi64fuBkygTtZYQ17HncVDeoMwli%2F0E1HzBYWW857LSEVyOhxyM%2BtIetyrK%2BxxmuQnSMVSAA%2BkOzKxVQbFsmaoAIU2CqSgEaEI26jbxvRpWE2ojcYwDz%2BK7sqoCX%2F4rbI3tKf41qjPIqOgorTPXqAU1tIO5Ofmhg79PZHpjDAChpUIIHhUEHse7GjNJN32VPQBgW5yY8FIM0UQXVxiarfMY7o&X-Amz-Signature=47cafba18c51e7eb1a48e6e1891e540d36905f23f0cda285aa393d92b8fc88dd&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 4
![QQE system in Japan.Source: MUFG [2018, p. 7].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f948215d2f6c89db738c/j_ijme-2019-0018_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKL2W7GT56%2F20260129%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260129T212251Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQC%2B%2F5F4pTYTKYgnUSDssWhHkVEEzY%2BtLncQ9pwDDKg2jQIhANEnNDoEZY%2FbC1n7pO%2BcHiAxx2lrk3zeouONbKjKVuEaKsUFCI7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgz5%2F4CH2bFkOoeur34qmQVbZvr5iQfwugOWvipggAZ1Ie849OW0OCo%2F8%2BSEPe2rVweyfDXo%2B8WzPvthwndNYnWaZPdfPUdAQdKkcgTAJuKPBuSfSabN7bYGLbs9L9vBUiV28hTMgt8VkRNhHw1eGJzcE291KlU1GvC18spK%2FY9HZ%2BgyZmSwVVgDGOSJvHXxYd9qVpDD%2FvvH6wxoPUvIbSRr4UZks02aFNdHvVrc%2FVRJloL4FQ1if9WWu5QwMQM3dSWXKDx5lz95CP3EdpJi%2FhoaLYacHH2pWRoj%2B4%2FucLoPRU4OqsaGBmyxMGqyqZEp5T61tK9%2BUQK9vU3gyNoPoneGhJgtQ9tKTSEhyxBQmI4CsNS3Ee8fbdg1WsNGulTv1SdcAYQQzxrezGc%2BpYsjeyOazmLawemuxbnwtxbWkCRKTAdUJ3Tfv0BskuKDcM8huFaPP7ytD3ItwgbHfLjdf6C6lUuZqi3AUVK4ET2%2BGBNYUqbOpzNUwgN8yQOx%2FsI6kyeq69ky4lnCSL19gCE%2BWI91Rx%2BgckrqPbd8jU1a6DEF5pShU3O1V4A0jYoMIBTYOJm4g2GX8uQ8qA8QYUavflGR%2BzB7fZTRlMppQoCDciGWEyBsgHVGPVbhZvOGObeR9FV85aFylayDrt2w7OJAQz2cPjZ0Lr6VeK78DJdSBijUyW7clQE%2BZGK7ymPEmYi2P6sdNAWQ6BdXwCOuHDOvT%2Bk5mndOmrlTxFK0wusSQxdEye%2BPFlHo6Y4E3g6ekYQGMFa3WozlsofFv1i44BVNytCjB38YQWK0FWgIQZhdw1S2g4Chf2Es37FoIuXQyTdnSudoxlLqjeLzV7DubM8KvZeanPGIOFcSoJ93Px6frUff0lY9M6TeUo%2BJaEATNAW50bMygr2mkuWUljDAhe%2FLBjqwAaPBVrY8tlgEJ8uqNfNMi64fuBkygTtZYQ17HncVDeoMwli%2F0E1HzBYWW857LSEVyOhxyM%2BtIetyrK%2BxxmuQnSMVSAA%2BkOzKxVQbFsmaoAIU2CqSgEaEI26jbxvRpWE2ojcYwDz%2BK7sqoCX%2F4rbI3tKf41qjPIqOgorTPXqAU1tIO5Ofmhg79PZHpjDAChpUIIHhUEHse7GjNJN32VPQBgW5yY8FIM0UQXVxiarfMY7o&X-Amz-Signature=49687acab75c03a1eaccbd9f082a80e7da1e82ea7a74cf2e28164a80ae6287f6&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 5
![Tankan index for industrial companies.Source: Own elaboration on the basis of [Bank of Japan].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f948215d2f6c89db738c/j_ijme-2019-0018_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKL2W7GT56%2F20260129%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260129T212251Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQC%2B%2F5F4pTYTKYgnUSDssWhHkVEEzY%2BtLncQ9pwDDKg2jQIhANEnNDoEZY%2FbC1n7pO%2BcHiAxx2lrk3zeouONbKjKVuEaKsUFCI7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgz5%2F4CH2bFkOoeur34qmQVbZvr5iQfwugOWvipggAZ1Ie849OW0OCo%2F8%2BSEPe2rVweyfDXo%2B8WzPvthwndNYnWaZPdfPUdAQdKkcgTAJuKPBuSfSabN7bYGLbs9L9vBUiV28hTMgt8VkRNhHw1eGJzcE291KlU1GvC18spK%2FY9HZ%2BgyZmSwVVgDGOSJvHXxYd9qVpDD%2FvvH6wxoPUvIbSRr4UZks02aFNdHvVrc%2FVRJloL4FQ1if9WWu5QwMQM3dSWXKDx5lz95CP3EdpJi%2FhoaLYacHH2pWRoj%2B4%2FucLoPRU4OqsaGBmyxMGqyqZEp5T61tK9%2BUQK9vU3gyNoPoneGhJgtQ9tKTSEhyxBQmI4CsNS3Ee8fbdg1WsNGulTv1SdcAYQQzxrezGc%2BpYsjeyOazmLawemuxbnwtxbWkCRKTAdUJ3Tfv0BskuKDcM8huFaPP7ytD3ItwgbHfLjdf6C6lUuZqi3AUVK4ET2%2BGBNYUqbOpzNUwgN8yQOx%2FsI6kyeq69ky4lnCSL19gCE%2BWI91Rx%2BgckrqPbd8jU1a6DEF5pShU3O1V4A0jYoMIBTYOJm4g2GX8uQ8qA8QYUavflGR%2BzB7fZTRlMppQoCDciGWEyBsgHVGPVbhZvOGObeR9FV85aFylayDrt2w7OJAQz2cPjZ0Lr6VeK78DJdSBijUyW7clQE%2BZGK7ymPEmYi2P6sdNAWQ6BdXwCOuHDOvT%2Bk5mndOmrlTxFK0wusSQxdEye%2BPFlHo6Y4E3g6ekYQGMFa3WozlsofFv1i44BVNytCjB38YQWK0FWgIQZhdw1S2g4Chf2Es37FoIuXQyTdnSudoxlLqjeLzV7DubM8KvZeanPGIOFcSoJ93Px6frUff0lY9M6TeUo%2BJaEATNAW50bMygr2mkuWUljDAhe%2FLBjqwAaPBVrY8tlgEJ8uqNfNMi64fuBkygTtZYQ17HncVDeoMwli%2F0E1HzBYWW857LSEVyOhxyM%2BtIetyrK%2BxxmuQnSMVSAA%2BkOzKxVQbFsmaoAIU2CqSgEaEI26jbxvRpWE2ojcYwDz%2BK7sqoCX%2F4rbI3tKf41qjPIqOgorTPXqAU1tIO5Ofmhg79PZHpjDAChpUIIHhUEHse7GjNJN32VPQBgW5yY8FIM0UQXVxiarfMY7o&X-Amz-Signature=3ea33d0553521a7e746a38b61498047422852a7f33678dd2c99eb2aaf34b8b0f&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 6
![Tankan index for non-industrial companies.Source: Own elaboration on the basis of [Bank of Japan].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f948215d2f6c89db738c/j_ijme-2019-0018_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKL2W7GT56%2F20260129%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260129T212251Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQC%2B%2F5F4pTYTKYgnUSDssWhHkVEEzY%2BtLncQ9pwDDKg2jQIhANEnNDoEZY%2FbC1n7pO%2BcHiAxx2lrk3zeouONbKjKVuEaKsUFCI7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgz5%2F4CH2bFkOoeur34qmQVbZvr5iQfwugOWvipggAZ1Ie849OW0OCo%2F8%2BSEPe2rVweyfDXo%2B8WzPvthwndNYnWaZPdfPUdAQdKkcgTAJuKPBuSfSabN7bYGLbs9L9vBUiV28hTMgt8VkRNhHw1eGJzcE291KlU1GvC18spK%2FY9HZ%2BgyZmSwVVgDGOSJvHXxYd9qVpDD%2FvvH6wxoPUvIbSRr4UZks02aFNdHvVrc%2FVRJloL4FQ1if9WWu5QwMQM3dSWXKDx5lz95CP3EdpJi%2FhoaLYacHH2pWRoj%2B4%2FucLoPRU4OqsaGBmyxMGqyqZEp5T61tK9%2BUQK9vU3gyNoPoneGhJgtQ9tKTSEhyxBQmI4CsNS3Ee8fbdg1WsNGulTv1SdcAYQQzxrezGc%2BpYsjeyOazmLawemuxbnwtxbWkCRKTAdUJ3Tfv0BskuKDcM8huFaPP7ytD3ItwgbHfLjdf6C6lUuZqi3AUVK4ET2%2BGBNYUqbOpzNUwgN8yQOx%2FsI6kyeq69ky4lnCSL19gCE%2BWI91Rx%2BgckrqPbd8jU1a6DEF5pShU3O1V4A0jYoMIBTYOJm4g2GX8uQ8qA8QYUavflGR%2BzB7fZTRlMppQoCDciGWEyBsgHVGPVbhZvOGObeR9FV85aFylayDrt2w7OJAQz2cPjZ0Lr6VeK78DJdSBijUyW7clQE%2BZGK7ymPEmYi2P6sdNAWQ6BdXwCOuHDOvT%2Bk5mndOmrlTxFK0wusSQxdEye%2BPFlHo6Y4E3g6ekYQGMFa3WozlsofFv1i44BVNytCjB38YQWK0FWgIQZhdw1S2g4Chf2Es37FoIuXQyTdnSudoxlLqjeLzV7DubM8KvZeanPGIOFcSoJ93Px6frUff0lY9M6TeUo%2BJaEATNAW50bMygr2mkuWUljDAhe%2FLBjqwAaPBVrY8tlgEJ8uqNfNMi64fuBkygTtZYQ17HncVDeoMwli%2F0E1HzBYWW857LSEVyOhxyM%2BtIetyrK%2BxxmuQnSMVSAA%2BkOzKxVQbFsmaoAIU2CqSgEaEI26jbxvRpWE2ojcYwDz%2BK7sqoCX%2F4rbI3tKf41qjPIqOgorTPXqAU1tIO5Ofmhg79PZHpjDAChpUIIHhUEHse7GjNJN32VPQBgW5yY8FIM0UQXVxiarfMY7o&X-Amz-Signature=0e5bfc344fd5e21be4c08538cf7882244476f40101aa821f1b4b8e1da5339f99&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 7
![General government gross debt by country (% of nominal GDP).Source: IMF [2018a].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f948215d2f6c89db738c/j_ijme-2019-0018_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKL2W7GT56%2F20260129%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260129T212251Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQC%2B%2F5F4pTYTKYgnUSDssWhHkVEEzY%2BtLncQ9pwDDKg2jQIhANEnNDoEZY%2FbC1n7pO%2BcHiAxx2lrk3zeouONbKjKVuEaKsUFCI7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgz5%2F4CH2bFkOoeur34qmQVbZvr5iQfwugOWvipggAZ1Ie849OW0OCo%2F8%2BSEPe2rVweyfDXo%2B8WzPvthwndNYnWaZPdfPUdAQdKkcgTAJuKPBuSfSabN7bYGLbs9L9vBUiV28hTMgt8VkRNhHw1eGJzcE291KlU1GvC18spK%2FY9HZ%2BgyZmSwVVgDGOSJvHXxYd9qVpDD%2FvvH6wxoPUvIbSRr4UZks02aFNdHvVrc%2FVRJloL4FQ1if9WWu5QwMQM3dSWXKDx5lz95CP3EdpJi%2FhoaLYacHH2pWRoj%2B4%2FucLoPRU4OqsaGBmyxMGqyqZEp5T61tK9%2BUQK9vU3gyNoPoneGhJgtQ9tKTSEhyxBQmI4CsNS3Ee8fbdg1WsNGulTv1SdcAYQQzxrezGc%2BpYsjeyOazmLawemuxbnwtxbWkCRKTAdUJ3Tfv0BskuKDcM8huFaPP7ytD3ItwgbHfLjdf6C6lUuZqi3AUVK4ET2%2BGBNYUqbOpzNUwgN8yQOx%2FsI6kyeq69ky4lnCSL19gCE%2BWI91Rx%2BgckrqPbd8jU1a6DEF5pShU3O1V4A0jYoMIBTYOJm4g2GX8uQ8qA8QYUavflGR%2BzB7fZTRlMppQoCDciGWEyBsgHVGPVbhZvOGObeR9FV85aFylayDrt2w7OJAQz2cPjZ0Lr6VeK78DJdSBijUyW7clQE%2BZGK7ymPEmYi2P6sdNAWQ6BdXwCOuHDOvT%2Bk5mndOmrlTxFK0wusSQxdEye%2BPFlHo6Y4E3g6ekYQGMFa3WozlsofFv1i44BVNytCjB38YQWK0FWgIQZhdw1S2g4Chf2Es37FoIuXQyTdnSudoxlLqjeLzV7DubM8KvZeanPGIOFcSoJ93Px6frUff0lY9M6TeUo%2BJaEATNAW50bMygr2mkuWUljDAhe%2FLBjqwAaPBVrY8tlgEJ8uqNfNMi64fuBkygTtZYQ17HncVDeoMwli%2F0E1HzBYWW857LSEVyOhxyM%2BtIetyrK%2BxxmuQnSMVSAA%2BkOzKxVQbFsmaoAIU2CqSgEaEI26jbxvRpWE2ojcYwDz%2BK7sqoCX%2F4rbI3tKf41qjPIqOgorTPXqAU1tIO5Ofmhg79PZHpjDAChpUIIHhUEHse7GjNJN32VPQBgW5yY8FIM0UQXVxiarfMY7o&X-Amz-Signature=6fb313d5449455dfa7bed0c2835d617eaff757009a699b3213c26d895fb106fc&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Figure 8
![Projected effects of trade liberalization on real GDP (%).Note: FTAAP denotes free trade area of the Asia-Pacific.Source:MUFG [2018, p. 32].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/6471f948215d2f6c89db738c/j_ijme-2019-0018_fig_008.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKL2W7GT56%2F20260129%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260129T212251Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJIMEYCIQC%2B%2F5F4pTYTKYgnUSDssWhHkVEEzY%2BtLncQ9pwDDKg2jQIhANEnNDoEZY%2FbC1n7pO%2BcHiAxx2lrk3zeouONbKjKVuEaKsUFCI7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQAhoMOTYzMTM0Mjg5OTQwIgz5%2F4CH2bFkOoeur34qmQVbZvr5iQfwugOWvipggAZ1Ie849OW0OCo%2F8%2BSEPe2rVweyfDXo%2B8WzPvthwndNYnWaZPdfPUdAQdKkcgTAJuKPBuSfSabN7bYGLbs9L9vBUiV28hTMgt8VkRNhHw1eGJzcE291KlU1GvC18spK%2FY9HZ%2BgyZmSwVVgDGOSJvHXxYd9qVpDD%2FvvH6wxoPUvIbSRr4UZks02aFNdHvVrc%2FVRJloL4FQ1if9WWu5QwMQM3dSWXKDx5lz95CP3EdpJi%2FhoaLYacHH2pWRoj%2B4%2FucLoPRU4OqsaGBmyxMGqyqZEp5T61tK9%2BUQK9vU3gyNoPoneGhJgtQ9tKTSEhyxBQmI4CsNS3Ee8fbdg1WsNGulTv1SdcAYQQzxrezGc%2BpYsjeyOazmLawemuxbnwtxbWkCRKTAdUJ3Tfv0BskuKDcM8huFaPP7ytD3ItwgbHfLjdf6C6lUuZqi3AUVK4ET2%2BGBNYUqbOpzNUwgN8yQOx%2FsI6kyeq69ky4lnCSL19gCE%2BWI91Rx%2BgckrqPbd8jU1a6DEF5pShU3O1V4A0jYoMIBTYOJm4g2GX8uQ8qA8QYUavflGR%2BzB7fZTRlMppQoCDciGWEyBsgHVGPVbhZvOGObeR9FV85aFylayDrt2w7OJAQz2cPjZ0Lr6VeK78DJdSBijUyW7clQE%2BZGK7ymPEmYi2P6sdNAWQ6BdXwCOuHDOvT%2Bk5mndOmrlTxFK0wusSQxdEye%2BPFlHo6Y4E3g6ekYQGMFa3WozlsofFv1i44BVNytCjB38YQWK0FWgIQZhdw1S2g4Chf2Es37FoIuXQyTdnSudoxlLqjeLzV7DubM8KvZeanPGIOFcSoJ93Px6frUff0lY9M6TeUo%2BJaEATNAW50bMygr2mkuWUljDAhe%2FLBjqwAaPBVrY8tlgEJ8uqNfNMi64fuBkygTtZYQ17HncVDeoMwli%2F0E1HzBYWW857LSEVyOhxyM%2BtIetyrK%2BxxmuQnSMVSAA%2BkOzKxVQbFsmaoAIU2CqSgEaEI26jbxvRpWE2ojcYwDz%2BK7sqoCX%2F4rbI3tKf41qjPIqOgorTPXqAU1tIO5Ofmhg79PZHpjDAChpUIIHhUEHse7GjNJN32VPQBgW5yY8FIM0UQXVxiarfMY7o&X-Amz-Signature=1f251f9ad6f4443d3444e3f56978a58614437509a7b013a46b51c4b15f98c1d5&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Japan: selected indicators, 2012–2017
| Year | Real GDP (in % change) | Output gap (in % change) | Business investment (in % change) | CPI deflator (in annual average) | Unemployment rate (in annual average) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2012 | 1.5 | −3.7 | 4.1 | −0.1 | 4.3 |
| 2013 | 2.0 | −2.2 | 3.7 | 0.3 | 4.0 |
| 2014 | 0.4 | −2.6 | 5.4 | 2.8 | 3.6 |
| 2015 | 1.4 | −2.0 | 3.4 | 0.8 | 3.4 |
| 2016 | 1.0 | −1.8 | 0.6 | −0.1 | 3.1 |
| 2017 | 1.7 | −0.7 | 2.9 | 0.5 | 2.9 |