References
- Alizadeh, K., I. Mirzadeh, D. Belenko, K. Khatamifard, M. Cho, C. C. Del Mundo, M. Rastegari and M. Farajtabar (2024), LLM in a flash: Efficient Large Language Model Inference with Limited Memory, arXiv, Cornell University.
- AMD (2023), AMD Showcases Growing Momentum for AMD Powered AI Solutions from the Data Center to PCs, https://www.amd.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2023-12-6-amd-showcases-growing-momentum-for-amd-powered-ai-.html (3 January 2024).
- Anthropic (2023), Expanding Access to Safer AI With Amazon, https://www.anthropic.com/news/anthropic-amazon (22 January 2024).
- Autoridade da Concorrência (2023), Competition and Generative AI Intelligence, https://www.concorrencia.pt/sites/default/files/documentos/Issues%20Paper%20-%20Competition%20and%20Generative%20Artificial%20Intelligence.pdf (1 February 2024).
- Autorité de la concurrence (2024, 18 January), Benoît Cœuré Delivers his 2024 New Year’s Message, News, https://www.autoritedelaconcurrence.fr/en/article/benoit-coeure-delivers-his-2024-new-years-message (25 January 2024).
- AWS (2024), AWS Trainium, Amazon AWS, https://aws.amazon.com/machine-learning/trainium/ (19 January 2024).
- Axel Springer (2023, 13 December), Axel Springer and OpenAI Partner to Deepen Beneficial Use of AI in Journalism, https://www.axelspringer.com/en/ax-press-release/axel-springer-and-openai-partner-to-deepen-beneficial-use-of-ai-in-journalism (25 January 2024).
- Bertuzzi (2023, 13 April), Italian Data Protection Authority Bans ChatGPT Citing Privacy Violations, Euractiv, https://www.euractiv.com/section/artificial-intelligence/news/italian-data-protection-authority-bans-chatgpt-citing-privacy-violations/ (25 January 2024).
- Bradford, A. (2020), The Brussels Effect: How the European Union Rules the World, Oxford University Press.
- Bundeskartellamt (2023a), G7 Competition Authorities and Policymakers’ Summit Digital Competition Communiqué 2023, G7, https://www.bundeskartellamt.de/SharedDocs/Publikation/EN/Others/G7_2023_Communique.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2 (25 January 2023).
- Bundeskartellamt (2023b), Cooperation Between Microsoft and OpenAI Currently Not Subject to Merger Control, https://www.bundeskartellamt.de/SharedDocs/Meldung/EN/Pressemitteilungen/2023/15_11_2023_Microsoft_OpenAI.html (26 January 2024).
- Cabral, L., J. Haucap, G. Parker, G. Petropoulos, T. Valletti and M. Van Alstyne (2021), The EU Digital Markets Act, JRC, 122910, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
- Carugati, C. (2023a), Antitrust Issues Raised by Answer Engines, Working paper, 7/2023, Bruegel.
- Carugati, C. (2023b), Competition in Generative Artificial Intelligence Foundation Models, Working paper, 14/2023, Bruegel.
- Carugati, C. (2023c), The Competitive Relationship between Cloud Computing and Generative AI, Working paper, 19/2023, Bruegel.
- Carugati, C. (2023d), The Age of Competition in Generative Artificial Intelligence Has Begun, Bruegel, https://www.bruegel.org/first-glance/age-competition-generative-artificial-intelligence-has-begun (25 January 2024).
- Carugati, C. (2024, 10 January), Competition Authorities Are Studying Similar Digital Markets, Digital Competition, https://www.digital-competition.com/infographics/competition-authorities-are-studying-similar-digital-markets (19 January 2024).
- Competition and Markets Authority (2020), Online Platforms and Digital Advertising Market Study Final Report.
- Competition and Markets Authority (2023a), AI Foundation Models: Initial Report, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-foundation-models-initial-report (1 February 2024).
- Competition and Markets Authority (2023b, 8 December), CMA Seeks Views on Microsoft’s Partnership With OpenAI, News, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/cma-seeks-views-on-microsofts-partnership-with-openai (26 January 2024).
- Council of the European Union (2023, 9 December), Artificial Intelligence Act: Council and Parliament Strike a Deal on the First Rules for AI in the World, Press release.
- Coyle, D. (2023, 2 February), Preempting a Generative AI Monopoly, Project Syndicate, https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/preventing-tech-giants-from-monopolizing-artificial-intelligence-chatbots-by-diane-coyle-2023-02 (29 January 2024).
- European Commission (2024,a 24 January), Commission Decision Establishing the European AI Office, https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/commission-decision-establishing-european-ai-office (1 February 2024).
- European Commission (2024b, 9 January), Commission Launches Calls for Contributions on Competition in Virtual Worlds and Generative AI, Press release, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_24_85 (16 January 2024).
- European Parliament (2023), EU AI Act: First Regulation on Artificial Intelligence, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20230601STO93804/eu-ai-act-first-regulation-on-artificial-intelligence (25 January 2024).
- Federal Trade Commission (2023a), FTC Staff Report Details Key Takea-ways from AI and Creative Fields Panel Discussion, https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2023/12/ftc-staff-report-details-key-takeaways-ai-creative-fields-panel-discussion (25 January 2024).
- Federal Trade Commission (2023b), Generative AI Raises Competition Concerns, Technology Blog, https://www.ftc.gov/policy/advocacy-research/tech-at-ftc/2023/06/generative-ai-raises-competition-concerns (25 January 2024).
- Federal Trade Commission (2024a), FTC Launches Inquiry into Generative AI Investments and Partnerships, https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/01/ftc-launches-inquiry-generative-ai-investments-partnerships (26 January 2024).
- Federal Trade Commission (2024b), FTC to Host Virtual Summit on Artificial Intelligence, Press release, https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/01/ftc-host-virtual-summit-artificial-intelligence (16 January 2024).
- Geng, X., A. Gudibande, H. Liu, E. Wallace, P. Abbeel, S. Levine and D. Song (2023, 3 April), Koala: A Dialogue Model for Academic Research, Barkley Artificial Intelligence Research, https://bair.berkeley.edu/blog/2023/04/03/koala/ (24 January 2024).
- Google (2024), Introduction to Cloud TPU, https://cloud.google.com/tpu/docs/intro-to-tpu (19 January 2024).
- GPDP (2024, 29 January), ChatGPT: Italian DPA Notifies Breaches of Privacy Law to OpenAI, Garante per la protezione dei dati personali, https://www.garanteprivacy.it/web/guest/home/docweb/-/docweb-display/docweb/9978020 (1 February, 2024).
- Gregory, R. W., O. Henfridsson, E. Kaganer and H. Kyriakou (2021), The Role of Artificial Intelligence and Data Network Effects for Creating User Value, Academy of Management Review, 46(3), 534-51.
- Grynbaum, M. M. and R. Mac (2023, 27 December), The Times Sues OpenAI and Microsoft Over A.I. Use of Copyrighted Work, The New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/27/business/media/new-york-times-open-ai-microsoft-lawsuit.html (25 January 2024).
- Hagey, K. M. Kruppa and A. Bruell (2023, 14 December), News Publishers See Google’s AI Search Tool as a Traffic-Destroying Nightmare, The Wall Street Journal, https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/news-publishers-see-googles-ai-search-tool-as-a-traffic-destroying-nightmare-52154074 (25 January 2024).
- Hartmann, T. (2023, 29 November) Behind France’s Stance Against Regulating Powerful AI Models, Euractiv, https://www.euractiv.com/section/artificial-intelligence/news/behind-frances-stance-against-regulating-powerful-ai-models/ (25 January 2024)
- Hartmann, T. (2024, 20 January), French MPs Want to Amend EU’s Copyright Rules To Cover Generative AI, Euractiv, https://www.euractiv.com/section/artificial-intelligence/news/french-mps-want-to-amend-eus-copyright-rules-to-cover-generative-ai/ (25 January 2024).
- Hungarian Competition Authority (2024, 4 January), GVH Launches Market Analysis on the Impact of Artificial Intelligence, Press release, https://www.gvh.hu/en/press_room/press_releases/press-releases-2024/gvh-launches-market-analysis-on-the-impact-of-artificial-intelligence (16 January 2024).
- Information Commissioner’s Office (2024, 15 January), ICO Consultation Series on Generative AI and Data Protection, https://ico.org.uk/about-the-ico/ico-and-stakeholder-consultations/ico-consultation-series-on-generative-ai-and-data-protection/ (25 January 2024).
- Intel (2023), Intel Core Ultra Ushers in the Age of the AI PC, News, https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/newsroom/news/core-ultra-client-computing-news-1.html (19 January 2024).
- Janardhan, S. (2023), Reimagining Our Infrastructure for the AI Age, Meta, https://about.fb.com/news/2023/05/metas-infrastructure-for-ai/ (19 January 2024).
- Kojima, T., S. S. Gu, M. Reid, Y. Matsuo and Y. Iwasawa (2023), Large Language Models are Zero-Shot Reasoners, arXiv, Cornell University.
- Langston, J. (2020, 19 May), Microsoft Announces New Supercomputer, Lays Out Vision for Future AI Work, Microsoft Blog, https://news.microsoft.com/source/features/ai/openai-azure-supercomputer/ (22 January 2024).
- Microsoft Corporate Blogs (2023, 23 January), Microsoft and OpenAI Extend Partnership, Official Microsoft Blog, https://blogs.microsoft.com/blog/2023/01/23/microsoftandopenaiextendpartnership/ (22 January 2024).
- Nvidia (2023), 10-Q Quarterly report, https://investor.nvidia.com/financial-info/sec-filings/sec-filings-details/default.aspx?FilingId=17074143 (19 January 2024).
- OECD (2023), AI Language Models: Technological, Socio-Economic and Policy Considerations, OECD Digital Economy Papers.
- OECD.AI (2021), Database of national AI policies, powered by EC/OECD, https://oecd.ai (25 January 2024).
- OpenAI (2024, 8 January), OpenAI and journalism, https://openai.com/blog/openai-and-journalism (25 January 2024).
- Press Trust of India (2023, 8 December), CCI Conducting Market Study On Artificial Intelligence To Assess Competition Landscape, Business Outlook India, https://business.outlookindia.com/news/cci-conducting-market-study-on-artificial-intelligence-to-assess-competition-landscape (16 January 2024)
- Rae, J. W., S. Borgeaud, T. Cai, K. Millican, J. Hoffmann, F. Song et al. (2022) ‘Scaling Language Models: Methods, Analysis & Insights from Training Gopher’.
- Reid, E. (2023, 10 May), Supercharging Search With Generative AI, Google Blog, https://blog.google/products/search/generative-ai-search/ (24 January 2024).
- Ribas, J. (2023, 21 February), Building the New Bing, Microsoft Blog, https://blogs.bing.com/search-quality-insights/february-2023/Building-the-New-Bing (19 January 2023).
- Riekeles, G. and M. von Thun (2023, 22 November), AI Won’t be Safe Until We Rein in Big Tech, European Policy Centre, https://www.epc.eu/en/publications/AI-wont-be-safe-until-we-rein-in-Big-Tech~55e63c (29 January 2024).
- Schick, T. and H. Schütze (2021), It’s Not Just Size That Matters: Small Language Models Are Also Few-Shot Learners, in K. Toutanova, A. Rumshisky, L. Zettlemoyer, D. Hakkani-Tur, I. Beltagy, S. Bethard, R. Cotterell, T. Chakraborty and Y. Zhou (eds.), Proceedings of the 2021 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Association for Computational Linguistics, 2339-52.
- Stucke, M. and A. Grunes (2016), Big Data and Competition Policy, Oxford University Press.
- Tabriz, P. (2024, 23 January), Chrome Is Getting 3 New Generative AI Features, Google Blog, https://blog.google/products/chrome/google-chrome-generative-ai-features-january-2024/ (24 January 2024).
- Titcomb, J. and J. Warrington (2024, 7 January), OpenAI Warns Copyright Crackdown Could Doom ChatGPT, The Telegraph, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2024/01/07/openai-warns-copyright-crack-down-could-doom-chatgpt/ (25 January 2024).
- UK Government (2023), The Government’s Code of Practice on Copyright and AI, UK Government, https://www.gov.uk/guidance/the-governments-code-of-practice-on-copyright-and-ai (25 January 2024)
- Voolich Wright, J. (2023, 14 March), A New Era for AI and Google Workspace, Google Blog, https://workspace.google.com/blog/product-announcements/generative-ai?hl=en (24 January 2024).