Have a personal or library account? Click to login
When All You Have is a Hammer: Lessons from the Americas on Securitizing State Responses to Hybrid Threats Cover

When All You Have is a Hammer: Lessons from the Americas on Securitizing State Responses to Hybrid Threats

Open Access
|Mar 2026

References

  1. Acemoglu, D., 2003. Root causes: A historical approach to assessing the role of institutions in economic development. Finance & Development, 40(2): pp 27‒30.
  2. Acemoglu, D., Robinson, J. A., 2012. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. New York: Random House.
  3. Albanese, J., Reichel, P. (Eds.), 2014. Transnational Organized Crime: An Overview from Six Continents. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
  4. Alda Mejías, S., Rodríguez Sánchez-Lara, G., 2021. Seguridad, corrupción e impunidad en América Latina. Madrid: Real Instituto el Cano.
  5. Allum, F., Gilmour, S. (Eds.), 2012. Routledge Handbook of Transnational Organized Crime. Abingdon: Routledge.
  6. Alexandrescu, M., Stoica, M., 2024. Authoritarian Demand in East‐Central Europe Post‐ Pandemic and Amid Neighbouring War. Politics and Governance, 12: pp 1‒16.
  7. Alves Soares, S., Vitelli, M., 2016. Comunidades epistêmicas e de prática em defesa na Argentina e no Brasil. Revista Carta Internacional, 11(3): pp 99‒123.
  8. Anselmo, M., Pontes, J., 2019. Crime.gov: Quando corrupção e governo se misturam. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva.
  9. Anselmo, M., Pontes, J., 2022. Operation Car Wash: Brazil’s Institutionalized Crime and the Inside Story of the Biggest Corruption Scandal in History. Dublin: Bloomsbury.
  10. Anselmo, M., Borges, M., Hamilton, M., 2022. Covid-19 e implicações à segurança multidimensional. Revista dos Tribunais, 111(1044): pp 191‒209.
  11. Bárcena, A., Byanyima, W., 2016. América Latina y el Caribe es la región más desigual del mundo. ¿Cómo solucionarlo? Comisión Económica para América Latina. https://www.cepal.org/es/articulos/2016-america-latina-caribe-es-la-region-masdesigual-mundo-como-solucionarlo (Accessed 14 September 2025).
  12. Barrachina, C., Rial, J., 2006. Los ministerios de defensa en América Latina y las consecuencias de la multidimensionalidad de las amenazas. América Latina Hoy, 42: pp 1‒21.
  13. Bartolomé, M., Hamilton, M., Bordón, R. P., 2023. ¿La crónica de una militarización anunciada? El rol militar y las relaciones cívico-militares en los tiempos de pandemia. Perspectivas: revista de ciencias sociales, 8(15): pp 1‒26.
  14. Bernazza, C., 2011. ¿Proyectos nacionales o políticas de Estado? Aportes al lenguaje de la política. Revista Reseñas y Debates, 7(65): pp 1‒4.
  15. Blackwell, A., 2015. If the War on Drugs is Over … Now What? Security Without Easy Answers. Victoria: Friesen Press.
  16. Bruneau, T., 2005. Civil-military relations in Latin America: The hedgehog and the fox revisited. Revista Fuerzas Armadas y Sociedad, 19(1): pp 111‒131.
  17. Calderón, F., 2012. Ten Theses Concerning Social Conflict in Latin America. CEPAL Review, 107: pp 7‒30.
  18. Carothers, T., Feldmann, A. (Eds.), 2021. Divisionismo político y riesgos democráticos en América Latina. Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  19. Chandler, D., 2008. Review Essay: Human Security: The Dog That Didn’t Bark. Security Dialogue, 39(4): pp 427‒438.
  20. Child, J., 1980. Unequal Alliance: The Inter-American Military System, 1938-1978. Boulder: Westview Press.
  21. Chillier, G., Freeman, L., 2005. El nuevo concepto de seguridad hemisférica de la OEA: Una amenaza en potencia. Washington: Washington Office on Latin America.
  22. Ciekanowski, H., Żurawski, S., Oskierko, M., 2025. The migration crisis as a tool of hybrid warfare: Analysis of selected cases at the borders of the European Union. L’europe/United Europe, 22(1): pp 20–29.
  23. Connell-Smith, G., 1966. The Inter-American System. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  24. Corporación Latinobarómetro, 2021. Informe 2021: Adiós a Macondo. Santiago: Corporación Latinobarómetro.
  25. Costa, G., 2012. Citizen security and transnational organized crime in the Americas: Current situation and challenges in the inter-American arena. Sur: International Journal on Human Rights, 9(16): pp 126‒46.
  26. Covarrubias, A., 2019. Integración latinoamericana: un regionalismo coyuntural. In Shifter, M., Binetti, B. (eds.), Promesas incumplidas: América latina hoy, pp 129‒146. Washington: Inter-American Dialogue.
  27. Daly-Hayes, M., 2006. Partners of choice? Prospects for cooperation on the multidimensional security agenda. Presented at the Western Hemisphere Security Cooperation Symposium. Washington: National Defense University, Institute for National Strategic Studies.
  28. Diamint, R., 2015. A New Militarism in Latin America. Journal of Democracy, 26(4): pp 155‒168.
  29. Domínguez, J., Mares, D., Orozco, M., Palmer, D., Rojas Aravena, F., Serbin, A., 2003. Boundary Disputes in Latin America. Washington: United States Institute of Peace.
  30. Einaudi, L., 2007. Trans-American Security: What’s Missing? Strategic Forum, 228: pp 1‒8.
  31. Farah, D., 2012. Transnational Organized Crime, Terrorism, and Criminalized States in Latin America: An Emerging Tier-One National Security Priority. Carlisle: US Army War College.
  32. Gabrielli, L., Garcés Mascareñas, B., 2025. The framing of migration as a hybrid military threat. Insights from the Ceuta’s 2021 ‘crisis’. Migration Studies, 13(1): pp 1‒24.
  33. Grabendorff, W. (Ed.), 2021. Militares y gobernabilidad. Cómo están cambiando las relaciones cívico-militares en América Latina. Bogotá: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.
  34. Griffiths Spielman, J., 2009. An analysis of the conceptualization of security in Latin America and its impact in the regional scenario. In Armed Forces and Society:
  35. Hamilton, M., 2016. Juggling defense and security in the Americas: Academic, diplomatic, and professional engagement at the Inter-American Defense College. Hemisferio: Revista del Colegio Interamericano de Defensa, 2: pp 114‒148.
  36. Hamilton, M., 2018. Youth and the security sector: VE as a function of Y. In Schirch, L. (Ed.), The Ecology of Violent Extremism: Perspectives on Peacebuilding and Human Security, 103‒109. London: Rowman and Littlefield.
  37. Hamilton, M., 2020a. Relaciones cívico-militares: relaciones críticas y multidimensionales para el hemisferio. Seguridad, Ciencia y Defensa, 6: pp 118‒130.
  38. Hamilton, M., 2020b. Sistema interamericano de seguridad. In Lozano, A., Rodríguez, A. (eds.), Seguridad y asuntos internacionales. Mexico City: Asociación Mexicana de Estudios Internacionales.
  39. Hamilton, M., Plancarte, M., Rodriguez Ceballos, O., 2022. La piedra angular de instituciones: reflexiones hemisféricas en el contexto de crisis multidimensionales. In Bartolomé, M., Borges, M. (eds.), Corruption and Institutionalization. Washington: Inter-American Defense College.
  40. Holton, M., Curry, C. M., 1914. Holton-Curry Readers. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co.
  41. Instituto Igarapé, 2025. Homicide Monitor. https://homicide.igarape.org.br/ (Accessed 12 October 2025).
  42. Isaacson, A., 2020. En América Latina, a causa del COVID-19 se está poniendo en riesgo alterar permanentemente las relaciones cívico-militares. Análisis WOLA. https://www.wola.org/es/analisis/america-latina-covid-19-relaciones-civico-militarespolicia/ (Accessed 7 October 2025).
  43. Kacowicz, A., Mares, D., 2016. Security studies and security in Latin America: The first 200 years. In Mares, D., Kacowicz, A. (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Latin American Security, pp 11‒29. London: Routledge.
  44. Le Clercq Ortega, J., Rodriguez, G., 2020. Índice global de impunidad 2020: Escalas de impunidad en el mundo. Puebla: Universidad de las Américas Puebla y Centro de Estudios sobre la Impunidad y Justicia.
  45. Ljungkvist, K., 2024. The military-strategic rationality of hybrid warfare: Everyday total defence under strategic non-peace in the case of Sweden. European Journal of International Security, 9(4): pp 533‒552.
  46. Medeiros Passos, A., Acácio, L., 2021. A militarização das respostas à COVID-19 nas democracias Latino-americanas. Revista de Administração Pública, 55(1): pp 261–271.
  47. Miklaucic, M., Brewer, J., (Eds.), 2013. Convergence: Illicit Networks and National Security in the Age of Globalization. Washington: NDU Press.
  48. Motta, B., Pimental, C., 2016. Securitization and the Political: Contributions from Hannah Arendt. Revista Brasileira de Estudos de Estrategia de Defesa, 3(1): pp 23‒51.
  49. Muggah, R., 2019. El combate a la delincuencia organizada en América Latina: Entre mano dura y seguridad ciudadana. In Shifter, M., Binetti, B., (Eds.), Promesas incumplidas: América latina hoy, pp 31‒52. Washington: Inter-American Dialogue.
  50. Muggah, R., Aguirre, K., 2018. Citizen Security in Latin America: Facts and Figures. Strategic paper 33. Rio de Janeiro: Igarapé Institute.
  51. Muggah, R., Szabó de Carvalho, I., Alvarado, A., Marmolejo, L., and Wang, R., 2016. Making Cities Safer: Citizen Security Innovations from Latin America. Strategic paper 20. Rio de Janeiro: Igarapé Institute.
  52. Organization of American States, 2003. Declaration on Security in the Americas. OEA/ Ser.K/XXXVIII. Mexico City: OAS.
  53. Organization of American States, 2011. Declaration of San Salvador on Citizen Security in the Americas. AG/DEC. 66 (XLI-O/11). San Salvador: OAS.
  54. Organization of American States, 2012. The Drug Problem in the Americas. Washington: OAS.
  55. Our World in Data, 2025. Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), Data from Johns Hopkins University. https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus (Accessed 1 October 2025).
  56. Pion-Berlin, D., Trinkunas, H., 2007. Attention deficits: Why politicians ignore defense policy in Latin America. Latin American Research Review, 42(3): pp 76‒100.
  57. Pereyra Bordón, R., Hamilton, M., Garma, S., 2020. ¿Fuera de alineación? Arquitectura, discursos y realidades de la seguridad hemisférica. In Chanona, A. (ed.), Los regionalismos frente a los retos y la complejidad de las amenazas a la seguridad y defensa contemporáneas. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
  58. Pring, C., Vrushi, J., 2019. Global Corruption Index: Latin America and the Caribbean 2019: Citizens’ Views and Experiences of Corruption. Berlin: Transparency International.
  59. Rathkolb, O., Steinbacher, S. (Eds.), 2025. Authoritarian Trends and Parliamentary Democracy in Europe. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag.
  60. Realuyo, C., 2013. Collaborating to combat illicit networks through interagency and international efforts. In Miklaucic, M., Brewer, J. (Eds.), Convergence: Illicit Networks and National Security in the Age of Globalization, pp 243‒265. Washington: NDU Press.
  61. Richardson, J. M., 2005. Paradise Poisoned: What We Can Learn About Development, Conflict, and Terrorism from Sri Lanka’s Civil Wars. Kandy: International Centre for Ethnic Studies.
  62. Rodrigues, T., 2012. Drug-trafficking and militarization in the Americas: the addiction to war. Contexto Internacional, 34(1): pp 9‒41.
  63. Rodrigues, T., 2020. Narcotráfico, militarización y democracia en el Brasil contemporáneo. Análisis Carolina, 8, pp 1‒13.
  64. Rodrigues, T., Labate, B., 2019. México y el narcoanálisis: una genealogía de las políticas de drogas en los gobiernos Calderón y Peña Nieto. Colombia Internacional, 100, pp 15‒38.
  65. Rosen, J. D., Cutrona, S., Lindquist, K., 2022. Gangs, violence, and fear: punitive Darwinism in El Salvador. Crime, law and social change, 79(2): pp 1‒20.
  66. Rotberg, R., 2020. Anticorruption. Cambridge: MIT Press.
  67. Schirch, L., 2011. Civil society-military roadmap on human security. chrome-https://lisaschirch.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/civil_society_military_roadmap_ on_human_security.pdf (Accessed 10 October 2025).
  68. Serbin, A., Serbin Pont, A., 2016. Cooperative security and regional governance. In Mares, D., Kacowicz, A. (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Latin American Security, pp 127– 137. London: Routledge.
  69. Sorj, B., Martuccelli, D., 2008. The Latin American Challenge: Social Cohesion and Democracy. São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Edelstein Center for Social Research.
  70. Thérien, J. P., Mace, G., Gagné, S., 2012. The changing dynamics of inter-American security. Latin American Policy, 3(2): pp 147–163.
  71. Tickner, A., 2022. Politización, militarización y democracia. El Espectador. https://www.elespectador.com/opinion/columnistas/arlene-b-tickner/politizacion-militarizacion-ydemocracia/ (Accessed 10 October 2025).
  72. Tilly, C., 2002. Stories, Identities and Political Change. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
  73. United Nations Development Program, 1994. Human Development Report 1994. New York: United Nations Development Program.
  74. United Nations Development Program, 2013. Regional Human Development Report 2013-2014: Citizen Security with a Human Face: Evidence and Proposals for Latin America. New York: United Nations Development Program.
  75. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2023. Global Study on Homicide 2023: Homicide and Organized Crime in Latin America. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
  76. Verdes-Montenegro, F., 2019. La (re)militarización de la política latinoamericana. Origen y consecuencias para las democracias de la región. Fundación Carolina, Documento de Trabajo 14.
  77. Villar, J., Maçaira, P., Baião, F. A., 2025. Lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic in Latin America: A Data Science standpoint. PLoS One, 20(5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324171.
  78. World Bank, 2011. World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security, and Development. Washington: World Bank.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/cmc-2025-0033 | Journal eISSN: 2463-9575 | Journal ISSN: 2232-2825
Language: English, Slovenian
Page range: 79 - 95
Published on: Mar 11, 2026
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year

© 2026 Mark D. Hamilton, Marcio Adriano Anselmo, published by General Staff of the Slovenian Armed Forces
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.