Effectiveness of different training models for running performance in female youth triathletes
References
- Bartlett, J.D., Hwa Joo, C., Jeong, T.S., Louhelainen, J., Cochran, A.J., Gibala, M.J., et al. (1985). Matched work high-intensity interval and continuous running induce similar increases in PGC-1!!!x1D6FC; mRNA, AMPK. phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle. Journal of applied physiology, (Bethesda, Md.:1985), 112(7), 1135–1143. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01040.2011
- Bassett, D. R., Jr, & Howley, E. T. (1997). Maximal oxygen uptake: “classical” versus ”contemporary” viewpoints. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 29(5), 591–603. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199705000-00002
- Bassett, D. R., Jr, & Howley, E. T. (2000). Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 32(1), 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200001000-00012
- Bell, G. J., Petersen, S. R., Wessel, J., Bagnall, K., & Quinney, H. A. (1991). Physiological adaptations to concurrent endurance training and low velocity resistance training. International journal of sports medicine, 12(4), 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1024699
- Beunen, G. (2003). Physical growth, maturation and performance. Revista Portuguesa de Ciencias do Desporto. 3: 11–12.
- Billat, V. L., Demarle, A., Slawinski, J., Paiva, M., & Koralsztein, J. P. (2001). Physical and training characteristics of top-class marathon runners. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 33(12), 2089–2097. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200112000-00018
- Billat, V. L., Flechet, B., Petit, B., Muriaux, G., & Koralsztein, J. P. (1999). Interval training at VO2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markers. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 31(1), 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199901000-00024
- Bottoni, A., Gianfelici, A., Tamburri, R., & Faina, M. (2011). Talent selection criteria for Olympic distance triathlon. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 6(2), 293–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.4100/jhse.2011.62.09
- Boullosa, D. A., Nakamura, F. Y., & Ruiz, J. R. (2010). Effectiveness of polarized training for rowing performance. International journal of sports physiology and performance, 5(4): 431. PMID: 21266728.
- Brunkhorst, L., & Kielstein, H. (2013). Comparison of anthropometric characteristics between professional triathletes and cyclists. Biology of Sport, 30(4): 269–273. https://doi.org/10.5604/20831862.1077552
- Burnley, M., Bearden, S. E., Jones, A. M. (2022). Polarized Training Is Not Optimal for Endurance Athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 54(6): 1032–1034. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002869
- Burnley, M., Jones, A.M. (2007). Oxygen uptake kinetics as a determinant of sports performance. European Journal of Sport Science, 7(2): 63–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390701456148
- Buttar, K. K., Saboo, N., & Kacker, S. (2019). A review: Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) and its estimation methods. International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health, 6(6), 24–32.
- Butts, N.K., Henry, B.A., Mclean, D. (1991). Correlations between VO2max and performance times of recreational triathletes. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 31(3): 339–344. PMID: 1798302.
- Cejuela Anta, R., Pérez Turpin, J. A., Villa Vicente, J. G., Cortell Tormo, J. M., & Rodríguez Marroyo, J. A. (2008). An analysis of performance factors in sprint distance triathlon. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise 2(2): 1–25.
- Conwit, R.A., Stashuk, D., Tracy, B., McHugh, M., Brown, W.F., Metter, E.J. (1999). The relationship of motor unit size, firing rate and force. Clinical neurophysiology : official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology, 110(7) 1270–1275. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1388-2457(99)00054-1
- D’Alleva, M., Giovanelli, N., Graniero, F., Billat, V. L., Fiori, F., Marinoni, M., & Lazzer, S. (2024). Effects of 24-week Polarized Training vs. Threshold Training in Obese Male Adults. International Journal of Sports Medicine 44. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2123-0851
- Davies, B., Daggett, A., Jakeman, P., & Mulhall, J. (1984). Maximum oxygen uptake utilising different treadmill protocols. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 18(2), 74–79. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.18.2.74
- Denis, C., Dormois, D., Lacour, J.R. (1984). Endurance training, VO2 max, and OBLA: a longitudinal study of two different age groups. International Journal of Sports Medicine 5: 167–173. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1025899
- dos Anjos, M. A. B., Fernandes Filho, J., & da Silva Novaes, J. (2003). Somatotypical, dermatoglyphic and physiological profiles of triathletes. Fitness & Performance Journal 2(1): 49–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3900/fpj.2.1.49.e
- Driller, M.W., Fell, J.W., Gregory, J.R., Shing, C.M., Williams, A.D. (2009). The effects of high-intensity interval training in well-trained rowers. International journal of sports physiology and performance, 4(1): 110–21. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.4.1.110
- Dudley, G.A., Abraham, W.M., Terjung, R.L. (1982). Influence of exercise intensity and duration on bio chemical adaptations in skeletal muscle. Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology, 53(4): 844-850. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1982.53.4.844
- Esteve-Lanao, J., Foster, C., Seiler, S., Lucia, A. (2007). Impact of training intensity distribution on performance in endurance athletes. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 21(3), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1519/R-19725.1
- Evertsen, F., Medbo, J. I., Jebens, E., Gjovaag, T. F. (1999). Effect of training on the activity of five muscle enzymes studied on elite cross-country skiers. Acta physiologica Scandinavica, 167(3), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-201x.1999.00607.x
- Evertsen, F., Medbo, J. I., Jebens, E., Nicolaysen K. (1997). Hard training for 5 mo increases Na (+)-K+ pump concentration in skeletal muscle of cross-country skiers. The American journal of physiology, 272(5 Pt 2), R1417-24. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1997.272.5.R1417
- Evertsen, F., Medbo, J.I., Bonen, A. (2001). Effect of training intensity on muscle lactate transporters and lactate threshold of cross-country skiers. Acta physiologica Scandinavica, 173(2), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-201X.2001.00871.x
- Foster, C. K., Heimann, P., Esten, G., Brice, & J. Porcari (2001). Differences in perceptions of training by coaches and athletes. The South African journal of medical sciences, 8: 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002871
- Foster, C., Casado, A., Esteve-Lanao, J., Haugen, T., Seiler S.(2022). Polarized Training Is Optimal for Endurance Athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 54(6): 1028–1031.
- Gaskill, S.E., Walker, A.J., Serfass, R.A., Bouchard, C., Gagnon, J., Rao, D.C., Skinner, J.S., Wilmore, J.H., Leon, A.S. (2001). Changes in ventilatory threshold with exercise training in a sedentary population: The Heritage Family Study. International journal of sports medicine, 22(8), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2001-18522
- Häkkinen, K., Alen, M., Kraemer, W.J. et al. (2003). Neuromuscular adaptations during concurrent strength and endurance training versus strength training. European journal of applied physiology, 89(1), 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-002-0751-9
- Helgerud, J., Engen, L. C., Wisloff, U., Hoff, J. (2001). Aerobic endurance training improves soccer performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 33(11), 1925–1931. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200111000-00019
- Helgerud, J., Høydal, K., Wang, E., Karlsen, T., Berg, P., Bjerkaas, M., Simonsen, T., Helgesen, C., Hjorth, N., Bach, R., Hoff, J. (2007). Aerobic highintensity intervals improve VO2max more than moderate training. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 39(4), 665–671. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3180304570
- Jayanthi, N., Pinkham, C., Dugas, L., Patrick, B., LaBella, C. (2013). Sports Specialization in Young Athletes: Evidence-Based Recommendations. Sports Health, 5(3): 251–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738112464626
- Jones, A.M., Carter, H. (2000). The effect of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitness. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 29 (6): 373–386. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200029060-00001
- Kindermann, W., Simon, G., Keul, J. (1979). The significance of the aerobic-anaerobic determination of work load intensities during endurance training. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 42(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00421101
- Kollias, J. and E. Buskirk. (1974). Exercise and altitude. In: Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sport. W. R. Johnson and E. R. Buskirk (Eds.). New York: Harper and Row. 211–227.
- Londeree, B.R. (1997). Effect of training on lactate/ventilatory thresholds: a meta-analysis. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 29(6), 837–843. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199706000-00016
- Lydiard, A. and Gilmour, G. (1962). Run to the Top. London: H. Jenkins.
- Matos, N., Winsley, R.J. (2007). Trainability of young athletes and overtraining. Journal of sports science & medicine, 6(3), 353–367. PMID: 24149422.
- McCarthy, J.P., Pozniak, M.A., Agre, J.C. (2002). Neuromuscular adaptations to concurrent strength and endurance training. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 34(3), 511–519. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200203000-00019
- McManus, A., Armstrong, N., Williams, C. (1997). Effect of training on the aerobic power and anaerobic performance of prepubertal girls. Acta Paediatrica, 86, 456–459. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.1997.tb08912.x
- McMillan, K., Helgerud, J., Grant, S. J., Newell, J., Wilson, J., Macdonald, R., et al. (2005). Lactate threshold responses to a season of professional British youth soccer. British journal of sports medicine, 39(7), 432–436. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2004.012260
- Midgley, A.W., Lars, R., McNaughton, and Andrew, M.J. (2007). Training to enhance the physiological determinants of long-distance running performance. Can valid recommendations be given based on current scientific knowledge? Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 37(10), 857–880. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737100-00003
- Milanović, Z., Sporiš, G., Weston, M. (2015). Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training (HIT) and continuous endurance training for VO2max improvements: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 45(10), 1469–1481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0365-0
- Muñoz, I., Seiler, S., Bautista, J., España, J., Larumbe, E., & Esteve-Lanao, J. (2014). Does polarized training improve performance in recreational runners. International journal of sports physiology and performance, 9(2), 265–272. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2012-0350
- Neal, C. M., Hunter, A. M., Brennan, L., O’Sullivan, A., Hamilton, D. L., DeVito, G., & Galloway, S. D. (2013). Six weeks of a polarized training-intensity distribution leads to greater physiological and performance adaptations than a threshold model in trained cyclists. Journal of applied physiology. 114(4): 461–471. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00652.2012
- Ní Chéilleachair, N. J., Harrison, A. J., & Warrington, G. D. (2017). HIIT enhances endurance performance and aerobic characteristics more than highvolume training in trained rowers. Journal of sports sciences, 35(11), 1052–1058. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1209539
- O’Toole, M.L. and Douglas, P.S. (1995). Applied Physiology of Triathlon. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 19(4), 251–267. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199519040-00003
- Obert, P., Mandigout, S., Vinet, A., N’Guyen, L., Stecken, F., Courteix, D. (2001b). Effect of aerobic training and detraining on left ventricular dimensions and diastolic function in prepubertal boys and girls. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 22(2), 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2001-11343
- Papai, Z., Wilhelm, M., Szakaly, Z. (2022). The new way of triathlon preparation in youth athletes. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 22(10), 2589–2597. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2022.10328
- Pérez, A., Ramos-Campo, D.J., Martín-Pagan, C., Martínez-Noguera, F.J., Chung, L.H., and Alcaraz, P.E. (2020). Impact of Polarized Versus Threshold training on Fat Metabolism and Neuromuscular Variables in Ultrarunners. International Journal of Sport Physiology and Performance, 15(3). 375–383. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2019-0113
- Pichot, V., Roche, F., Gaspoz, J.M., Enjolras, F., Antoniadis, A., Minini, P., Costes, F., Busso, T., Lacour, J.R., Barthélémy, J.C. (2000). Relation between heart rate variability and training load in middledistance runners. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 32(10), 1729–1736. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200010000-00011
- Pollock, M.L. (1977). Submaximal and maximal working capacity of elite distance runners. Part I: cardiorespiratory aspects. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 301, 310–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1977.tb38209.x
- Poole, D.C., Gaesser, G.A. (1985). Response of ventilatory and lactate thresholds to continuous and interval training. Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985), 58(4), 1115–1121. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1985.58.4.1115
- Ricciardelli, L.A., & Yager, Z. (2016). Adolescence and Body Image: From Development to Preventing Dissatisfaction (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315849379
- Rogers, W. A., Maurer, T. J., Salas, E., and Fisk, A. D. (2014). Training design, cognitive theory, and automaticity: Principles and a methodology. In Improving training effectiveness in work organizations, Psychology Press. pp. 19–45.
- Röhrken, G., Held, S., & Donath, L. (2020). Six Weeks of Polarized Versus Moderate Intensity Distribution: A Pilot Intervention Study. Frontiers in physiology, 11, 534688. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.534688
- Rosenblat, M.A., Granata, C., Thomas, S.G. (2022). Effect of interval training on the factors influencing maximal oxygen consumption: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 52(6), 1329–1352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01624-5
- Rosenblat, M.A., Perrotta, A.S., Vicenzino, B. (2019). Polarized vs. threshold training intensity distribution on endurance sport performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 33(12), 3491–3500. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002618
- Schabort, E. J., Killian, S. C., Gibson, A. S. C., Hawley, J. A., and Noakes, T. D. (2000). Prediction of triathlon race time from laboratory testing in national triathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(4): 844–849. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200004000-00018
- Schubert, M.M., Clarke, H.E., Seay, R.F., Spain, K.K. (2017). Impact of 4 weeks of interval training on resting metabolic rate, fitness, and health-related outcomes. Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism = Physiologie appliquee, nutrition et metabolisme, 42(10), 1073–1081. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2017-0268
- Schumacher, Y. O., Mueller, P. (2002). The 4000- m team pursuit cycling world record: theoretical and practical aspects. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 34(6), 1029–1036. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200206000-00020
- Seiler, K. S., Kjerland, G. O. (2006). Quantifying training intensity distribution in elite endurance athletes: is there evidence for an “optimal” distribution? Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 16(1), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2004.00418.x
- Seiler, K.S. (2010). What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes? International journal of sports physiology and performance, 5(3), 276–291. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.5.3.276
- Seiler, S. and Tonnessen, E. (2009). Intervals, thresholds, and long slow distance: the role of intensity and duration in endurance training. Sportscience, 13, 32–53.
- Sellés-Pérez, S., Fernández-Sáez, J., Férriz-Valero, A., Esteve-Lanao, J., Cejuela, R. (2019). Changes in Triathletes’ Performance and Body Composition During a Specific Training Period for a Half-Ironman Race. Journal of human kinetics, 67, 185–198. https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2018-0077
- Sellés-Pérez, S., Arévalo-Chico, H., Fernández-Sáez, J., Cejuela, R. (2024). Training Characteristics, Performance, and Body Composition of Three U23 Elite Female Triathletes throughout a Season. Sports (Basel, Switzerland), 12(2), 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020053
- Seiler, S., Haugen, O., and Kuffel, E. (2007). Autonomic recovery after exercise in trained athletes: intensity and duration effects. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 39(8), 1366–1373. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318060f17d
- Silva Oliveira, P., Boppre, G. and Fonseca, H. (2024). Comparison of Polarized Versus Other Types of Endurance Training Intensity Distribution on Athletes’ Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 54(8), 2071–2095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-024-02034-z
- Steinacker, J. M., Lormes, W., Lehmann, M., Altenburg D. (1998). Training of rowers before world championships. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 30(7), 1158–1163. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199807000-00022
- Stöggl, T., and Sperlich, B. (2014). Polarized training has greater impact on key endurance variables than threshold, high intensity, or high volume training. Frontiers in Physiology, 5, 33. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2014.00033
- Suriano, R., and Bishop, D. (2010). Physiological attributes of triathletes. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 13(3), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2009.03.008
- Torma, F., Gombos, Z., Jokai, M., Takeda, M., Mimura, T., Radak, Z. (2019). High intensity interval training and molecular adaptive response of skeletal muscle. Sports medicine and health science, 1(1), 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smhs.2019.08.003
- van der Zwaard, S., Brocherie, F., Jaspers, R.T. (2021). Under the hood: skeletal muscle determinants of endurance performance. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3: 719434.
- Van Droogenbroeck, F., Spruyt, B., Keppens, G. (2018). Gender differences in mental health problems among adolescents and the role of social support: Results from the Belgian health interview surveys 2008 and 2013. BMC psychiatry, 18(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1591-4
- Van Schuylenbergh, R., Eynde, B. V., and Hespel, P. (2004). Prediction of sprint triathlon performance from laboratory tests. European journal of applied physiology, 91(1), 94–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-003-0911-6
- Vleck, V., Millet, G.P. & Alves, F.B. The Impact of Triathlon Training and Racing on Athletes’ General Health. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 44(12), 1659–1692 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0244-0
- Zemková, E., Hamar, D. (2018). Sport-Specific Assessment of the Effectiveness of Neuromuscular Training in Young Athletes. Frontiers in physiology, 9, 264. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00264
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/bhk-2025-0028 | Journal eISSN: 2080-2234
Language: English
Page range: 290 - 300
Submitted on: May 4, 2025
Accepted on: Sep 23, 2025
Published on: Nov 1, 2025
Published by: University of Physical Education in Warsaw
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
Keywords:
Related subjects:
© 2025 Zsofia Papai, Marta Wilhelm, Zsuzsanna Liszkai, Zsolt Szakaly, published by University of Physical Education in Warsaw
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.